UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA       AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT    STATION 
COLLEGE   OF  AGRICULTURE  BENJ"  'DE  WHECLER'  "»«'«"" 

THOMAS    FORSYTH     HUNT,    DEAN   AND   DIRECTOR 

BERKELEY  H"    E'   VAN    NORMAN-   Vice-Director   and    Dean 

University   Farm    School 

CIRCULAR  No.  121 
October,  1914 


SOME  THINGS  THE   PROSPECTIVE 
SETTLER   SHOULD  KNOW 

BY 
THOMAS    FORSYTH     HUNT 

AND    OTHER    MEMBERS    OF    THE    STAFF 


[A  good  many  people  are  being  detached  from  their  customary  employment 
or  source  of  income  by  the  pressure  of  the  crisis  in  Europe.  To  all  such  who 
are  looking  about  for  a  new  start,  the  best  suggestion  we  can  give  is  that  the 
land  is  the  place  where  living  is  cheapest  and  the  cost  of  shelter  hardly  exists 
at  all.  No  man  forced  out  of  employment  this  winter  is  in  worse  plight  than 
millions  of  immigrants  who  have  landed  in  America  with  less  than  $50  in  their 
pockets.  Those  immigrants  who  have  gone  to  the  land  have  been  able  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years  to  acquire  a  farm,  to  raise  families,  and  to  participate  in 
the  most  wholesome  gifts  that  American  civilization  has  to  offer.  To  be  forced 
from  the  city  back  to  the  farm  may  seem  a  hardship  to  the  man  who  goes 
through  the  transition,  but  in  the  end  he  will  be  better  off  and  his  children 
will  be  benefited. — Collier's.] 

An  agent  who  is  seeking  to  sell  land,  holds  that  he  may,  with 
propriety,  state  the  maximum  yield  which  may  be  expected  from  a 
given  crop  on  the  land  which  he  is  offering  for  sale.  It  is  difficult 
to  deny  that  he  has  such  right.  It  is  worth  while,  therefore,  to  con- 
sider whether  there  is  any  relationship  between  maximum  yields  and 
yields  that  may  be  expected  in  the  ordinary  run  of  business.  The 
average  yield  of  wheat  in  California,  one  season  with  another,  is 
about  13  bushels.  It  varies  in  different  seasons  from  9  to  18  bushels 
per  acre.  On  land  that  is  fairly  adapted  to  wheat  good  farmers  not 
infrequently  get  40  bushels  per  acre  and  no  farmer  thinks  that  his 
crop  is  to  be  commended  unless  he  has  obtained  25  bushels  per  acre, 
providing  the  season  is  favorable.  In  the  same  manner,  the  average 
yield  of  barley  in  California  is  about  25  bushels  per  acre.  Many  good 
farmers  secure  75  bushels,  while  a  yield  of  50  bushels  per  acre  is 
considered  commendable.  Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  a  yield 
of  50  bushels  of  wheat  or  100  bushels  of  barley  is  not  impossible, 
although  it  is  a  rather  extraordinary  yield. 


EXPECTED  YIELDS 

The  question  now  arises,  how  may  one  estimate  the  yield  which 
may  be  used  safely  as  a  business  guide?  If  only  an  average  yield  of 
these  different  crops  is  obtained,  the  raiser  secures  a  very  modest  daily 
wage  plus  a  small  interest  on  the  investment.  A  man  who  can  produce 
only  average  yields  of  crops  will,  generally  speaking,  do  better  in 
some  other  business,  or  by  working  for  a  daily  wage  for  others.  An 
intelligent,  thrifty,  careful  farmer  may  properly  hope  to  secure  twice 
the  average  return  that  is  customary  under  the  conditions  of  his  soil 
and  climate,  but  even  this  is  not  a  safe  estimate  on  which  to  do 
business.  Very  broadly  speaking, — necessarily  there  must  be  many 
exceptions, — a  competent  farmer  may  expect  to  secure  an  increase  of 
50  per  cent  over  average  yields.  To  illustrate,  the  following  table 
may  be  prepared  showing  what  may  be  expected  in  California  under 
average  conditions  of  soil  and  climate: 

Wheat  Barley 

Average  yield  13  25 

A  safe  estimate  for  business  purposes 20  40 

A  good  yield  which  competent  men  may  hope  to  obtain  25  50 

Yield  not  infrequently  obtained  under  favorable  conditions 40  75 

Possible  but  extraordinary  yields  50  100 


These  figures  are  merely  illustrative,  but  it  is  probable  that  they 
represent  a  somewhat  general  law :  namely,  first,  that  it  is  possible  to 
secure,  under  favorable  conditions,  a  yield  that  is  four  times  that 
usually  obtained;  and,  second,  that  for  business  purposes,  it  is  not 
safe  to  count  on  securing  more  than  two-fifths  of  the  maximum  yield. 
There  are  many  exceptions  to  the  rule  because  of  varying  soil  and 
climatic  conditions. 

It  is  not  intended  to  assert  that  larger  returns  may  not  be  obtained, 
but  to  suggest  that  if  a  profit  cannot  be  calculated  upon  this 
basis,  then  further  study  of  the  situation  is  needed  before  making  a 
purchase.  In  order  to  assist  a  new  settler  in  California,  a  table  has 
been  prepared,  from  such  data  as  is  available,  showing  the  yields  that 
may  be  expected  when  the  crop  is  grown  by  a  competent  man  in  a 
location  and  on  a  soil  adapted  to  it.  The  figures  given  below  may  be 
said  to  represent  the  best  judgment  of  those  who,  through  actual 
experience  and  observation,  are  competent  to  judge.  The  figures  are 
in  no  sense  official: 


Average,  Probable,  and  Possible  Yields* 


Average 

yield 
per  acre 

Wheat,  bu 13 

Oats,  bu 31 

Barley,  bu 25 

Potatoes,  bu 125 

Alfalfa,  ton  3.5 

Grain  hay,  ton  1.25 

Cotton,  Durango,   lb 300 

Rice,  rough,  lb 1500 

Hops,  lb 1500 

Beans,  field,  lb 1100 

Onions,  sack 100 

Sugar  beets,  ton  9 

Butter  fat,  per  cow,  lb 150 

Oranges,  box  150 

Lemons,  box r 175 

Raisins,  Muscat,  ton  0.5 

Raisins,  Seedless,  ton  ....  0.75 

Grapes,  shipping,  ton 3.0 

Grapes,  Interior,  wine, 

ton  3.0 

Grapes,  Coast,  wine,  ton  1.5 

Olives,  ton  1.0 

Walnuts,  ton  0.4 

Almonds,  ton  0.4 

Prunes,  dried,  ton  1.25 

Plums,  shipping,  crate....  250 

Apricots,  dried,  ton  0.75 

Apricots,  shipping,  crate  250 

Pears,  ton  4.0 

Peaches,  dried,  ton  0.75 

Peaches,  shipping,  box  ....  300 

Apples,  box  200 

Cherries,  ton  1.25 


A  safe 
estimate 

for 
business 
purposes 

20 

A  good  yield 
which  com- 
petent men 
may  hope  to 
obtain 

25 

Yield  not 
infrequently 

obtained 
under  favor- 
able conditions 
40 

Possible 
but  extra- 
ordinary 
yield 
50 

45 

60 

90 

120 

40 

50 

75 

100 

175 

200 

300 

500 

5.0 

6.0 

9.0 

12.0 

1.75 

2.0 

3.0 

4.0 

400 

500 

800 

1200 

2200 

3000 

4500 

6000 

1800 

2200 

3000 

8000 

1200 

1400 

2500 

3000 

150 

250 

300 

400 

13 

18 

25 

30 

225 

300 

350 

400 

225 

300 

450 

600 

225 

300 

450 

600 

0.75 

1.00 

1.25 

2.00 

1.00 

1.25 

1.50 

3.00 

5.0 

7.0 

10.0 

15.0 

5.0 

7.0 

10.0 

15.0 

3.0 

5.0 

7.0 

10.0 

1.50 

2.0 

3.0 

5.0 

0.5 

.75 

1.0 

1.5 

0.5 

.75 

1.0 

1.25 

1.75 

2.5 

3.0 

5.0 

350 

450 

650 

850 

1.0 

1.25 

1.75 

2.5 

350 

450 

650 

850 

5.0 

7.0 

10.0 

12.0 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

3.0 

400 

600 

800 

1000 

300 

500 

900 

1200 

2.0 

2.5 

5.0 

8.0 

*  In  California  the  pounds  per  bushel  are  barley,   50 ;   corn,   52 ;  oats,   32  ;   and  wheat,   60. 
The  sack  equivalent  in  pounds  is  neither  uniform  nor  standardized.     The  variation  is  due  to  the 
fullness  of  the  bags  and  the  volume  weight  of  the  grain. 

Good  plump  barley 110-115  pounds  per  sack. 

Second  class  barley   100  pounds  per  sack. 

Heavy  extra  wheat  125-150  pounds  per  sack. 

Average  wheat   120—135   pounds  per  sack. 

Heavy  oats  in  barley  bags  100  pounds  per  sack. 

Light  oats  in  barley  bags   85—  90  pounds  per  sack. 

Oats  in  regular  oat  bags,  about  125  pounds  per  sack. 

Beans    80-100  pounds  per  sack. 

Potatoes  110-120  pounds  per  sack. 


Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed  upon  the  fact  that  the  figures 
given  in  the  table  above  are  intended  to  apply  to  average  land  and 
not  to  the  best  land  adapted  to  that  particular  crop.  There  are  large 
areas  in  California  where  five  tons  of  alfalfa  per  annum  may  be 
deemed  a  safe  estimate  and  where  competent  men  would  not  under- 
take to  raise  alfalfa  if  they  did  not  expect  six  tons  per  acre.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  are  some  areas  where  much  smaller  yields  may 
be  considered  satisfactory. 

The  chief  purpose  of  this  discussion  is  to  enforce  the  principle 
that  the  large  yields  which  are  obtained  under  very  favorable  con- 
ditions are  not  a  true  business  guide.  It  is  necessary  to  recognize 
frankly  that  only  a  fraction  of  such  possible  yields  are  obtained 
ordinarily  in  actual  practice.  The  purpose  is  not  to  try  to  state  what 
yield  may  be  obtained  under  each  given  condition  of  soil  and  climate, 
but  to  give  a  sort  of  working  basis  for  reasonable  estimation.  Thus  if 
in  a  given  region  on  a  particular  type  of  soil,  one  determines  that  it 
has  been  found  possible  to  get  a  yield  of  thirteen  tons  of  alfalfa  per 
acre,  on  the  basis  of  two-fifths  previously  stated  5.2  tons  of  alfalfa 
would  be  a  safe  estimate  for  business  purposes.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
eight  tons  were  found  to  be  an  extraordinary  yield,  then  3.2  tons  are 
all  that  could  be  safely  predicted.  However,  it  must  always  be  kept 
in  mind  that  the  competent  man  may  hope  to  secure  better  yields. 
The  second  and  third  columns  in  the  above  table  are  the  ones  to 
which  the  reader  should  give  his  chief  attention. 


INVESTMENT   REQUIRED    FOR    SATISFACTORY   INCOME 

Persons  will  differ  widely  as  to  what  is  a  satisfactory  income. 
Some  arbitrary  figure  must  be  assumed,  however,  as  a  basis  of  dis- 
cussion. All  that  can  here  be  hoped  is  to  show  such  relationship 
as  to  enable  one  to  forecast  a  condition  that  will  be  satisfactory 
to  himself.  Let  it  be  assumed  then  that  a  gross  income  of  $4000  per 
year  is  desired.  The  annual  gross  income  from  the  chief  farm  crops 
of  the  United  States  is  about  16  per  cent,  or  one-sixth  of  the  capital 
invested.  Under  these  conditions  an  investment  of  $24,000  would  be 
required.  Only  a  modest  wage  and  a  small  interest  would  be  earned. 
A  satisfactory  gross  income,  one  perhaps  that  competent  men  may 
reasonably  expect  to  earn,  would  be  25  per  cent  or  one-fourth  of  the 
capital  invested.  An  investment  of  $16,000  would  therefore  be  neces- 
sary. Suppose  a  gross  income  of  $4000  per  year  is  obtained,  what 
becomes  of  it?  In  a  general  way  this  sum  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts:  (1)  expenses,  (2)  interest  on  the  investment,  (3)  return  to  the 


farmer  for  his  management  and  labor.  The  latter  may  be  called  the 
labor  income.  There  have  been  gathered,  for  example,  some  data  on 
general  farms  tending  to  show  that  if  a  man  has  invested  wisely  in  land 
and  equipment  he  may  pay  about  7  per  cent  of  the  total  investment 
for  a  working  manager.  This  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  a  farmer 
should  receive  7  per  cent  on  the  capital  invested  for  his  management, 
assuming  that  he  is  himself  actively  engaged  either  in  managing  or 
laboring  or  both.  In  reaching  this  conclusion  from  data  collected, 
5  per  cent  interest  on  the  capital  invested  was  assumed.  On  this  basis 
the  following  will  result : 

For  labor  income— 7  per  cent  on  $16,000  $1,120.00 

Interest  on  investment — 5  per  cent  on  $16,000  800.00 

For  expenses  2,080.00 

Total  $4,000.00 

One  thing  that  is  at  once  obvious  from  an  examination  of  the  data 
is  that  if  one  must  pay  10  per  cent  interest  for  money  to  purchase 
land  and  equipment  there  would  be  only  2  per  cent,  or  $320,  left  for 
labor  income.  It  will  be  noted  that  for  each  per  cent  which  is  added 
to  the  interest  charge  an  equivalent  reduction  must  be  made  in  the 
labor  income.  Thus  if  the  interest  is  6  per  cent  one  may  expect  his 
labor  income  to  be  only  6  per  cent  of  the  capital  invested.  If  the 
interest,  is  8  per  cent,  the  labor  income  will  be  but  4  per  cent.  More- 
over there  is  a  tendency  for  the  labor  income  to  be  further  reduced 
on  farms  growing  a  single  crop,  since  such  farms  furnish  employment 
for  a  relatively  small  portion  of  the  year.*  However,  on  fruit  farms, 
this  condition  is  somewhat  offset  by  the  opportunity  for  employment 
in  the  packing  houses,  thereby  augmenting  the  income  of  the  owners 
and  their  families.  Of  course,  owners  of  fruit  and  other  farms,  who 
are  not  actively  employed  thereon  need  not  expect  to  secure  more  than 
a  fair  interest  on  their  investment  and  then  only  when  intelligently 
and  efficiently  managed. 

Some  surprise  may  be  felt  that  any  definite  relation  can  be  assumed 
between  labor  income  and  capital  invested.  The  explanation  seems 
to  be  that  the  value  of  the  land  rises  with  the  income  and  thus  the 
interest  on  the  new  capitalization  prevents  the  labor  income  from 
rising.  Thus,  if  a  man  buys  a  farm  at  $50  per  acre  and  the  subsequent 
income  justifies  valuing  the  land  at  $200  per  acre,  the  interest  upon 
the  new  valuation  keeps  the  labor  income  from  rising.  It  is  well 
known  that  this  rise  in  the  value  of  land  has  been  the  source  of  much 
profit  to  farmers. 

*  See  footnote,  page   15. 


Of  course,  very  much  will  depend  upon  the  wisdom  with  which 
expenses  are  incurred.  Without  doubt  there  is  in  individual  cases 
great  opportunity  for  increasing  the  labor  income  by  decreasing 
expenses.  What  this  paragraph  suggests  is  that  it  is  not  wise  to  assume 
a  gross  income  greater  than  one-fourth  the  capital  invested  and  that 
one  must  concede  that  one-half  the  gross  income  may  be  required  for 
running  expenses.  Unless  a  man  can  estimate  a  satisfactory  labor 
income  on  this  basis,  it  is  prudent  to  proceed  with  caution.  It  is 
obvious  that  if  a  man  is  satisfied  with  a  labor  income  of  $560  per 
year  an  investment  of  $8000  will  suffice.  If  the  farm  is  paid  for  he 
may  expect  a  cash  income  over  expense  of  $960  per  year,  since  he  has 
a  right  to  expect  interest  on  the  investment  plus  his  labor  income. 

SIZE  OF  FARM 

How  large  must  a  farm  be  to  furnish  a  satisfactory  living?  From 
what  has  been  said  the  best  practical  measure  with  which  to  answer 
this  question  is  the  gross  income.  The  area  of  land  necessary  to 
obtain  a  gross  income  of  $4000  will  depend  upon  the  crops  raised. 
Thus,  if  the  land  is  to  be  put  into  barley,  from  which  may  be  expected 
40  bushels  per  acre,  worth  60  cents  per  bushel,  or  a  gross  return  of 
$24  per  acre,  there  will  be  required  167  acres  to  return  a  gross  income 
of  $4000.  If  adapted  to  potatoes,  yielding  175  bushels  per  acre,  worth 
70  cents  per  bushel,  33  acres  would  be  required.  An  orange  grove, 
yielding  225  boxes,  netting  the  grower  a  dollar  per  box,  would  require 
less  than  18  acres  in  trees.  As  there  is  more  or  less  waste  land  in 
all  types  of  farming,  it  may  be  stated,  in  general  terms,  that  200  acres 
of  land  would  be  required  for  barley  and  40  acres  for  potatoes,  while 
20  acres  would  suffice  for  oranges.  A  similar  estimate  may  be  made 
concerning  dairying.  Estimating  a  yield  of  225  pounds  of  butter  fat 
per  year  and  that  three  pounds  of  butter  fat  are  worth  a  dollar,  the 
total  income  for  butter  fat  per  year  is  $75  per  cow.  Each  cow  may 
raise  a  calf,  and  some  pigs  and  chickens  may  be  kept.  It  may  be 
possible,  therefore,  to  secure  a  gross  income  from  all  sources  of  $100 
per  cow.  The  amount  of  land  which  is  required  to  keep  a  cow  in 
California  varies  at  least  as  widely  as  from  one  to  ten  acres  where 
dairying  is  now  actually  practiced.  Where  alfalfa  is  grown  in  the 
open  valleys  under  irrigation,  it  requires  about  l1/^  to  1%  acres  to 
support  a  cow.  Assuming  the  latter  figure,  it  will  require  60  acres 
to  bring  a  gross  income  of  $4000.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  in 
a  certain  irrigated  region  tracts  of  20  acres  each  were  sold  for  dairy 
purposes.  As  time  has  gone  on  the  farmers  located  upon  these  tracts 
have  acquired  additional  lands,  so  that  at  present  the  one-family  dairy 


farm,  based  upon  alfalfa,  is  actually  about  30  acres.  This  is  perhaps 
another  way  of  saying  that  these  families  are  satisfied  with  a  gross 
income  of  $2000  per  year. 

INFLUENCE  OF  CHILDREN 

The  one-family  farm  just  mentioned  is  a  familiar  instance  of 
the  influence  of  family  co-operation  in  farming.  Various  members 
of  the  family  help  on  these  farms.  In  this  way  the  labor  income 
is  apparently  increased  and  the  expense  of  conducting  the  farm  is 
decreased.  This,  however,  is  merely  because  members  of  the  family 
are  not  paid  for  this  labor  at  current  rates.  Nevertheless  one  of  the 
important  reasons  for  engaging  in  certain  types  of  farming  is  that 
it  gives  rational  and  remunerative  employment  to  the  children  of  the 
family.  Farming  remains  the  one  great  industry  where  children  are 
a  material  asset.  A  man  with  a  family  of  children  may  wisely  engage 
in  dairying,  fruit  raising,  or  vegetable  growing,  not  only  because  he 
can  use  the  labor  of  his  children  to  advantage,  but  because  the  train- 
ing in  contributing  to  the  family  income  which  they  receive  before 
the  age  of  twenty-one  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  assets  these  children 
can  acquire.  If  the  ideal  of  a  successful  home  is  not  a  part  of  the  pro- 
gramme it  may  be  well  to  question  whether  some  other  activity  may 
not  better  engage  attention. 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  PRICE 

The  gross  return  per  acre  depends  of  course,  upon  two  factors — 
yield  and  price.  The  size  of  the  farm  required  for  a  given  gross 
return  will  depend,  therefore,  not  only  upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
but  also  upon  the  location.  The  latter  materially  affects  the  price, 
especially  in  a  state  of  great  size  with  many  communities  remote  from 
the  larger  centers  of  population.  Nowhere,  probably,  is  community 
effort  more  important  in  securing  satisfactory  prices  than  with  the 
fruit  raiser  in  California.  No  matter  how  satisfactory  the  yield  and 
quality  of  the  fruit  may  be,  if  the  grower  is  not  surrounded  by  others 
raising  a  like  commodity,  usually  it  will  be  found  difficult  to  market 
the  crop  at  a  satisfactory  price.  In  the  figures  which  are  given  in 
the  table  it  is  not  intended  to  state  either  the  lowest  price  or  the 
highest  price  at  which  a  .given  commodity  sells  in  California,  but 
rather  to  state  what  men  in  the  industry  would  look  upon  as  a  low  or 
high  price.  The  average  price,  also,  is  not  necessarily  the  average  of 
any  number  of  years  or  of  any  locality,  but  rather  a  statement  of 
what  would  be  looked  upon  as  a  satisfactory  price  by  those  who  are 
engaged  extensively  in  growing  the  particular  crop  in  the  leading 
localities  where  the  crop  is  produced. 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF   SIZE   OF   FARM 


Table  showing  the  area  required  to  produce  a  gross  income  of  $4000  per  year, 
assuming  the  average  price  stated.  The  yield  assumed  is  stated  in  column  2, 
page  3,  under  the  heading — A  Safe  Estimate  for  Business  Purposes.  Figures 
are  not  official. 


Low  Price 

Dollars  and 

cents 

Wheat,  bu $0.70 

Oats,  bu 40 

Barley,  bu .50 

Potatoes,  bu .50 

Alfalfa,  ton   _ 5.00 

Grain  hay,  ton  6.00 

Cotton,  Durango,  lb .11 

Rice,  rough,  lb .01 

Hops,  lb 10 

Beans,  field,  lb 03 

Onions,  sacks .50 

Sugar  beets,  ton   4.50 

Butter  fat,  lb 25 

Oranges,   box   .50 

Lemons,  box  .75 

Raisin,  Muscat,  lb .02 

Raisins,  Seedless,  lb .025 

Grapes,  shipping,  ton  7.00 

Grapes,  Interior,  wine, 

ton    7.00 

Grapes,  Coast,  wine,  ton  12.00 

Olives,  oil,  ton  40.00 

Olives,  pickling,  ton 80.00 

Walnuts,  lb 10 

Almonds,   ton    160.00 

Prunes,  dried,  ton   50.00 

Plums,  shipping,  crate .45 

Apricots,   dried,   ton    120.00 

Apricots,  shipping,  crate  .50 

Pears,  ton   20.00 

Peaches,  dried,  ton  70.00 

Peaches,  shipping,  box .25 

Apples,    box    .40 

Cherries,  shipping,  ton....  100.00 


Size  of  Farm 

High  Price 

Dollars  and 

cents 

Average  Price 

Dollars  and 

cents 

necessary  to 

obtain  gross 

income  of  $4000 

Acres 

$1.00 

$0.85 

235 

.65 

.55 

161 

.75 

.60 

167 

.90 

.70 

33 

12.00 

8.00 

100 

15.00 

10.00 

229 

.17 

.14 

71 

.03 

.02 

91 

.30 

.17 

13 

.05 

.04 

83 

2.00 

.80 

33 

6.00 

5.50 

56 

.40 

.33 

60 

2.50 

1.50 

12 

3.00 

2.00 

9 

.05 

.03 

89 

.06 

.04 

50 

60.00 

20.00 

40 

18.00 

15.00 

53 

30.00 

23.00 

58 

50.00 

45.00 

59 

200.00 

150.00 

18 

.15 

.12 

33 

340.00 

280.00 

29 

120.00 

80.00 

29 

1.25 

.60 

19 

300.00 

180.00 

22 

1.50* 

.75 

15 

60.00 

40.00 

20 

200.00 

105.00 

38 

1.00 

.40 

25 

1 .50 

.65 

20 

300.00 

200.00 

10 

A  certain  amount  of  waste  land  must  be  assumed.  The  smaller  the 
tract  the  greater  the  proportion  of  waste  due  to  roads  and  buildings. 
Allowing  some  leeway  for  waste  land,  it  is  possible  to  state,  in  general 
terms,  that  for  grain  raising,  such  as  barley,  oats,  or  wheat,  two 
hundred  or  more  acres  will  be  required  to  secure  a  gross  income  of 
$4000  per  year  where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  to  permit  of  annual 
cropping,  and  twice  that  amount  will  be  required  where  it  is  necessary 
to  practice  slimmer  fallow  on  alternate  years.  Sixty  acres  may  be 
required  for  sugar  beets,  grape  growing,  or  dairying.  Potatoes  and 
various  tree  fruits  may  require  forty  acres  or  less.  Ten  acres  appears 
to  be  the  smallest  area  on  which  a  California  crop  will  return  a  gross 
income  of  $4000  a  year  under  average  conditions.  It  is  not  intended 
to  assert  that  a  given  crop  will  require  a  given  area  as  shown  in  the 
last  column  of  the  table.  In  fact,  it  will  probably  require  in  most 
cases  either  more  or  less  than  the  amount  stated,  because  the  con- 
ditions will  probably  be  above  or  below  the  average.  Neither  is  it 
intended  to  assert  that  even  though  the  conditions  are  only  average  a 
suitable  return  may  not  be  obtained  from  a  less  area  through  greater 
energy,  thrift,  and  knowledge.  Indeed,  it  is  being  constantly  done; 
for  example,  while  it  ordinarily  may  take  forty  acres  to  produce  $4000 
worth  of  shipping  grapes,  an  authentic  example  was  brought  to  the 
writer's  attention  where  thirteen  acres  of  shipping  grapes  in  1913 
sold  on  the  farm  in  bulk  brought  the  owner  $4692.  This  crop  did  not 
cost  the  tenant,  exclusive  of  rent,  to  exceed  $500,  including  pay  for  his 
own  labor.  This  illustration  is  quoted  to  show  that  while  statements 
similar  to  this  one  can  be  made  honestly  and  such  cases  occur  not  infre- 
quently, they  are  not  a  proper  guide  for  the  new  settler.  A  part  of  the 
zest  in  farming  in  California  is  that  there  are  such  prizes  for  which  one 
may  reasonably  strive.  What  it  is  intended  to  say  is  that  if  one  expects 
to  get  greater  returns  than  are  indicated  in  the  table,  he  should  be 
thoroughly  convinced  that  he  has  more  favorable  conditions  or  greater 
ability  than  the  average.  Of  course,  one  may  properly  be  content  with 
a  smaller  gross  income  and  thus  require  a  smaller  area  to  satisfy  his 
needs.  It  is  fairly  obvious,  however,  that  statements  of  satisfactory 
income  on  less  than  ten  acres,  which  undoubtedly  do  occur,  do  not 
represent  normal  conditions  and  are  not  safe  guides  for  those  who 
desire  to  make  a  home  in  the  open  country.  Such  small  areas  may.  and 
in  many  cases  do,  furnish  delightful  homes  for  those  who  have  other 
sources  of  income.  A  more  delightful  place  for  people  of  moderate 
income  to  live  than  in  some  of  the  valleys  of  California  can  be  found 
in  but  few  localities  in  the  world.  It  is  apparent  that  this  type  of 
population   is   destined   to   increase   largely.      Neighbors   of   unusual 


10 

intelligence  and  culture,  schools  and  civic  improvements  of  the  highest 
order,  unparalleled  climate,  and  good  roads  throughout  the  year,  as 
well  as  many  other  factors,  contribute  to  this  end. 


SOME  CENSUS  FIGURES 

More  than  three-fifths  of  all  the  land  owned  in  farms  in  California 
in  1910,  was  held  in  tracts  of  one  thousand  acres  or  over.  This  vast 
area  of  seventeen  million  acres,  however,  represents  only  about  5  per 
cent  of  the  total  number  of  farms.  There  were  less  than  five  thousand 
farms  of  over  a  thousand  acres  each,  while  there  were  more  than  ten 
thousand  farms  of  less  than  ten  acres  each.  More  than  one-tenth  of 
all  the  farms  in  California,  1910,  were  less  than  ten  acres  in  area.  In 
many  instances,  however,  the  income  from  the  farm  did  not  represent 
the  total  income  of  the  owner.  The  following  table  gives  the  number 
of  farms  by  size  groups,  together  with  the  total  area  of  land  and  the 
value  per  acre  in  each  group  as  determined  by  the  census  of  1910. 

Number 

Under  20  acres  22,525 

20  to  49  acres  20,614 

50  to  174  acres  22,695 

175  to  999  acres  17,670 

1000  acres  and  over  4,693 

Total  88,197 

Speaking  in  general  terms,  one-fourth*  of  the  farms  of  California 
were  less  than  twenty  acres  in  area,  one-fourth  between  twenty  and 
forty-nine  acres,  one-fourth  between  fifty  and  one  hundred  and 
seventy-four  acres,  while  the  remaining  one-fourth  were  one  hundred 
and  seventy-five  acres  or  more  in  extent.  The  latter  one-fourth 
occupied  seven-eighths  of  the  total  area  in  farms.  The  average  size 
of  farm  was  three  hundred  and  seventeen  acres  with  an  average  value 
for  land  and  buildings  of  $16,447.  The  average  value  of  livestock 
per  farm  was  $1447,  and  that  of  implements  and  machinery  was  $414. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  farms  operated  by  owners  averaged 
two  hundred  and  twenty-seven  acres,  by  tenants  three  hundred  and 
forty-two  acres,  and  by  managers  nineteen  hundred  and  thirty-three 
acres.  The  greatly  increased  acreage  value  of  the  smaller  farms  as 
shown  in  the  table  above  is  due  to  many  causes,  of  which  four  stand 
out  prominently:  (1)  location,  (2)  larger  proportionate  value  of  build- 
ings, (3)  irrigation,  (4)  in  many  cases,  plantations  of  fruit  trees. 


Total  area 

Value  per  acre 

200,822 

$666.67 

625,954 

308.01 

2,462,400 

126.03 

7,352,304 

59.29  ' 

17,289,954 

21.84 

27,931,434 

51.93 

11 


ESTIMATING  THE  VALUE  OF  LAND 

A  Dairy  Farm. — How  may  one  estimate  the  value  of  land?  All 
that  one  can  hope  to  do  is  to  give  an  illustration  of  a  method.  For 
this  purpose,  the  dairy  farm,  previously  mentioned,  may  be  used. 
It  was  seen  that  sixty  acres  may  be  sufficient  to  produce  a  gross 
income  of  $4000  per  year  where  cows  are  kept  on  land  raising  alfalfa 
by  irrigation.  According  to  figures  previously  mentioned,  this  would 
represent  an  investment  of  $16,000.  This  investment  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  four  parts:  (1)  raw  land,  (2)  water  rights  and  the 
preparation  of  the  land  for  irrigation,  (3)  buildings,  (4)  animals, 
tools,  and  other  floating  capital.  The  animals,  tools,  and  other  floating 
capital  may  be  estimated  at  25  per  cent  of  the  total  investment,  or 
$4000.  If  the  buildings  are  satisfactory,  they  may  easily  cost  an 
additional  $4000,  thus  leaving  $8000  for  the  raw  land,  for  water  rights 
and  the  preparation  for  irrigation.  It  is  a  matter  to  be  determined 
in  each  individual  instance,  but  if  the  water  rights  and  preparation 
for  irrigation  are  to  cost  $2000  on  sixty  acres,  this  would  leave  $6000 
which  may  be  paid  for  raw  land,  or  $100  per  acre.  Obviously  if  water 
rights  and  preparation  for  irrigation  cost  $4000  then  only  $80  per 
acre  should  be  paid  for  raw  land.  No  one  must  assume  that  the 
figures  stated  necessarily  apply  to  an  individual  case.  Each  person 
must  take  the  principle  here  illustrated  and  determine  what  the  figures 
should  be  under  his  circumstances. 

An  Orange  Orchard. — In  a  paragraph  on  page  6  it  was  estimated 
that  twenty  acres  of  land  planted  to  oranges  might  be  required  to 
return  a  gross  income  of  $4000.  According  to  the  basis  on  which  we 
are  working,  this  represents  a  capital  of  $16,000,  or  $800  per  acre. 
In  this  instance,  probably  $2000  may  be  estimated  for  the  buildings, 
leaving  $14,000  for  land,  water,  and  trees.  Let  it  be  supposed  that 
the  water  rights,  including  water  delivered  to  the  highest  point  of 
the  tract,  cost  $150  per  acre,  and  the  cost  of  bringing  these  trees 
to  the  age  of  five  years,  including  the  purchase  of  the  trees,  planting, 
cultivation,  irrigation,  fertilizers,  and  taxes,  is  $350  per  acre,  then  the 
situation  would  stand  as  follows : 

Twenty  Acre  Orchard 

Buildings    $2,000.00 

Water  rights  3,000.00 

Bringing  orchard  into  bearing 7,000.00 

Value  of  raw  land  4,000.00 

Total   $16,000.00 


12 

Under  this  estimate,  raw  land  capable  of  being  irrigated  and 
suitable  for  growing  oranges,  may  be  estimated  to  be  worth  $200  per 
acre.  It  is  not  intended  to  say  that  such  raw  land  is  worth  $200 
per  acre.  What  is  intended  is  to  point  out  that  in  finding  the  value 
of  raw  land  one  should  determine  the  cost  of  buildings,  water  rights, 
and  the  expense  of  bringing  the  trees  into  bearing,  and  deduct  these 
items  from  the  value  of  a  bearing  orchard. 

The  influence  of  yield  upon  the  value  of  land  may  be  illustrated 
with  the  orange  crop.  Suppose  instead  of  a  safe  yield  of  225  boxes 
per  acre,  a  yield  of  twice  this  amount,  or  450  boxes,  is  estimated,  which 
is  a  yield  not  infrequently  obtained  under  favorable  conditions.  At  a 
dollar  a  box  the  area  required  to  return  $4000  gross  income  would  be 
approximately  nine  acres.  As  there  will  be  some  waste  land,  let  a 
tract  of  ten  acres  be  estimated.  The  cost  per  acre  of  water  rights 
and  bringing  orchard  into  bearing  remaining  the  same,  the  following 
table  shows  the  result : 

Ten  Acre  Orchard 

Buildings    $2,000.00 

Water  rights— ten  acres  at  $150  1,500.00 

Bringing  orchard  into  bearing — ten  acres  at  $350  3,500.00 

Value  of  raw  land  9,000.00 

Total  $16,000.00 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  when  the  income  per  acre  is  doubled  the 
value  of  raw  land  rises  from  $200  to  $900  per  acre.  The  same  result 
would  have  been  accomplished  if  instead  of  assuming  a  change  of 
yield  from  225  to  450  boxes  per  acre,  the  price  had  risen  from  $1  to  $2 
per  box.  By  way  of  emphasis  the  illustration  may  be  pushed  further : 
Suppose  instead  of  a  yield  of  225  boxes  per  acre  only  an  average  yield 
of  150  boxes,  worth  $1  per  box,  was  obtained.  Then  to  secure  a  gross 
return  of  $4000  would  require  nearly  twenty-seven  acres — to  allow 
for  waste  land,  assume  twenty-eight  acres.  Estimated  as  before,  the 
following  interesting  result  is  obtained : 

Twenty-eight  Acre  Orchard 

Buildings    $2,000.00 

Water  rights— 28  acres  at  $150  4,200.00 

Bringing  orchard  into  bearing — 28  acres  at  $350 9,800.00 

Value  of  raw  land  Nothing 

Total   $16,000.00 


13 

In  other  words,  when  raw  land,  capable  of  returning  $450,  is  worth 
$900  per  acre,  and  when  returning  $225  is  worth  $200,  then  land  that  is 
capable  of  returning  $150  per  acre  is  worth  nothing  for  the  purpose 
of  growing  oranges  under  the  conditions  named. 

If  225  boxes  per  acre  at  $1.50  per  box  are  assumed,  twelve  acres 
of  trees  would  be  required.  Assuming  the  purchase  of  a  fifteen  acre 
tract,  raw  land  would,  in  accordance  with  the  assumptions  already 
made,  be  worth  $435  per  acre. 

In  like  manner,  accepting  these  assumptions,  bearing  orchards  of  the 
sizes  named,  returning  an  annual  gross  income  of  $4000  each,  would 
be  worth : 

Value  per  Acre  of  Bearing  Orchard 

10  acres $1,600  per  acre 

15  acres 1,067  per  acre 

20  acres 800  per  acre 

28  acres 571  per  acre 

Since  this  circular  is  being  prepared  for  the  prospective  settler,  it 
is  assumed  that  the  tract  to  be  purchased  will  constitute  a  home  as  well 
as  a  place  of  business.  The  cost  of  a  bungalow  of  the  simplest  type, 
therefore,  has  been  included  under  the  head  of  buildings.  Many  of 
the  orange  and  lemon  groves  of  California,  however,  are  without 
dwellings,  being  held  by  the  owners  as  an  investment.  (See  paragraph, 
A  Going  Concern.)  Even  when  the  owners  are  not  engaged  in  other 
business,  they  often  live  in  nearby  towns  or  villages.  Not  infrequently 
there  is  a  dwelling  for  a  foreman  or  other  laborer.  The  tracts  on 
which  owners  of  homes  are  located  are  apt  to  be  twenty  acres  in 
extent  and  yield  a  gross  income  of  $4000  per  year. 

Dry  Farming. — It  has  been  shown  that  two  hundred  acres  of  land 
sown  annually  to  barley  might  bring  a  gross  income  of  $4000  per  year. 
In  the  area  having  an  annual  rainfall  between  ten  and  fifteen  inches 
this  result  could  probably  be  obtained  only  by  cropping  every  other 
year  and  by  the  practices  known  as  dry  farming.  In  order,  therefore, 
to  obtain  an  annual  income  of  $4000  per  year,  four  hundred  acres  of 
land  would  be  required,  so  that  one-half  might  each  year  remain  fallow. 
Assuming  $4000  is  required  for  horses,  machinery  and  other  equip- 
ment, there  would  be  left  $12,000  to  invest  in  land  possessing  suitable 
buildings,  or  at  the  rate  of  $30  per  acre.  If  buildings  are  absent  then 
a  sufficient  sum  must  be  deducted  to  pay  for  the  buildings.  If  $4000 
is  required  for  buildings,  then  the  land  should  be  purchased  at  $20 
per  acre.* 


For  further  discussion  of  land  values  see  page  45. 


14 

A  Going  Concern. — The  dairy  farm  and  the  orange  grove  are  illus- 
trations of  two  very  different  types  of  business.  In  the  case  of  the 
dairy  farm  the  farmer  receives  his  pay  check  every  month.  With  the 
orange  grower,  payment  comes  in  during  a  restricted  period.  On  a 
new  dairy  farm  it  will  take  a  year  to  get  the  farm  under  full  headway. 
In  the  case  of  the  orange  grove  it  will  take  about  five  years  to  bring 
the  trees  into  commercial  bearing;  that  is,  into  a  condition  where  it 
will  pay  expenses.  It  may  not  come  into  full  bearing  for  ten  years. 
Dairying  is  a  going  concern  almost  from  the  start,  while  to  secure 
a  successful  orange  grove  it  requires  many  years  of  waiting  which  can 
be  afforded  only  by  men  who  have  other  sources  of  income.  One  of 
the  most  important  questions  to  determine  in  the  purchase  of  a  piece 
of  property  is  how  soon  it  will  become  a  going  concern.  Some  banks 
adopt  it  as  a  policy  not  to  loan  except  to  going  concerns.  The  man 
who  must  earn  a  living  through  his  own  labor  will  do  well  to  invest  in 
an  orchard  or  ranch  from  which  he  can  get  immediate  returns,  rather 
than  to  invest  in  land  which  will  require  years  to  develop.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  man  who  merely  wishes  to  invest  capital  may  easily  spend 
five  or  even  ten  years  in  developing  a  business  farm  enterprise.  The 
fact  that  relatively  few  men  have  capital  so  to  invest  gives  them  a 
greater  opportunity  to  reap  eventually  a  good  return. 

Side  Issues. — It  is,  however,  possible  for  a  man  to  make  himself  a 
going  concern  by  taking  up  side  issues  while  his  orchard  is  growing. 
There  are  two  general  methods  of  doing  so :  one  is  to  grow  intercrops 
in  his  orchard  while  the  trees  are  small.  The  success  of  this  method 
will  depend  upon  a  number  of  factors,  including  the  kind  of  fruit,  the 
abundance  and  cost  of  water,  and  market  conditions.  The  other 
method  is  to  engage  in  outside  work  while  the  orchard  is  growing. 
It  is  a  rather  common  practice  in  the  citrus  sections  for  a  man  who 
is  starting  a  grove  of  his  own  to  care  for  other  groves  at  the  same 
time;  thus  a  man  with  a  ten  or  twenty  acre  tract  of  his  own  may 
have  charge  of  two  or  three  other  bearing  groves,  ranging  from  five 
to  twenty  acres  each.  It  is  generally  estimated  that  one  man  can  do 
the  cultural  work  on  forty  acres.  The  considerable  number  of  non- 
resident owners  makes  a  demand  for  such  services.  The  smallness  of 
the  areas  makes  the  arrangement  physically  possible. 

Diversified  Agriculture. — In  the  illustrations  which  have  been  cited 
it  has  been  assumed  that  only  a  single  crop  was  being  used.  In  fact, 
however,  many  farms  do  and  most  farms  should  raise  a  variety  of 
products.  A  diversity  of  crops  helps  to  conserve  the  soil,  to  keep  down 
insect  enemies  and  fungous  disease,  and  to  make  possible  a  more 
constant  and  economical  use  of  labor.    It  may  also  result  in  reducing 


15 

the  area  required  for  a  given  gross  income.  Assume  an  average  annual 
yield  of  five  tons  of  alfalfa  per  acre  at  eight  dollars  per  ton.  There 
would  be  required  100  acres  to  produce  an  income  of  $4000.  It  has 
been  shown  previously  that  an  alfalfa  ranch  of  sixty  acres  carrying 
forty  cows  may  give  an  equal  gross  income.  Thus  in  the  same  way 
the  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  horses  or  hogs  may  considerably  modify 
the  area  required.* 

SALE  OF  LAND 

If  a  person  owns  a  ranch  that  is  profitable  he  is  not  generally 
anxious  to  sell  it.  If  a  man  owns  a  herd  of  cows  and  desires  to  sell 
some  of  them  he  will,  if  he  is  a  good  business  man,  seek  to  sell  his 
poorest  cows.  Lands  follow  the  same  economic  law.  The  ranches  that 
come  upon  the  market  are  apt  to  be  those  that  have  for  some  economic 
cause  become  unprofitable.  This  may,  of  course,  be  due  to  several 
reasons.  It  may  be  that  it  is  not  possible  to  compete  with  other  lands 
of  greater  fertility.  It  may  be  that  the  growth  of  cities  and  the 
development  of  transportation  have  made  it  no  longer  capable  of  com- 
peting with  other  areas.  It  may  be  due  to  mismanagement.  It  may 
be  that  changing  conditions  have  made  the  area  too  large  and  that  it 
needs  subdivision.  However,  thoroughly  desirable  areas  may  be  placed 
upon  the  market  for  various  reasons,  as  through  the  settling  of  estates. 
Frequently  splendid  areas  are  brought  into  the  market  through  the 
development  of  new  water  supplies. 

It  is  a  characteristic  of  California  conditions  that  its  soils  are  what 
is  called  "spotted."  There  may  be  very  poor  areas  surrounded  by 
land  of  great  fertility.     Men  who  make  it  a  business  to  buy  and  sub- 


*  Professor  Bioletti  comments  on  this  paragraph  as  follows:  "Our  fruit  production  seems 
to  show  a  tendency  to  get  into  the  hands  of  men  with  limited  capital — capital  too  limited  to 
fully  develop  an  orchard  of  sufficient  size  to  supply  the  needs  of  a  moderate  family.  For 
such  cases,  it  seems  to  me  desirable  that  the  grower  should  diversify  his  crops  in  two  ways, 
first  in  order  to  supply  his  family  with  as  large  proportion  of  their  food  consumption  as 
possible,  and  secondly  to  utilize  his  own  and  his  family's  labor  in  the  harvesting  of  the  crops. 
Probably  at  least  half  of  the  living  expenses  of  a  family  can  be  supplied  by  the  milk,  eggs, 
vegetables,  fruit,  etc.,  raised  on  the  place.  It  would  be  impossible  for  any  ordinary  farmer 
to  harvest  a  crop  of  an  orchard  consisting  of  one  variety  of  fruit,  if  this  orchard  were  large 
enough  to  support  the  family  and  to  supply  them  with  employment  during  the  main  part  of 
the  year.  The  following  is  an  example  of  what  might  be  a  good  choice  of  diversified  crops 
for  a  thjrty-acre  orchard  in  the  central  portion  of  the  Interior  Valley: 


5 

acres  Apricots  for   drying 

July      1-15 

harvest 

10 

days 

5 

acres  Peaches  for  drying 

July   15-30 

" 

10 

" 

5 

acres   Sultanina   raisins 

Sept.     1-15 

" 

10 

" 

10 

acres  Muscat  raisins 
Border  trees — 

Sept.  15-30 

10 

1 

acre  trees — Figs  for  drying 

Aug.-Sept. 

" 

5 

" 

1 

acre   trees — Olives   for  picklin 

ig      Oct.— Nov. 

" 

5 

" 

2 

acres  Alfalfa. 

1 

acre  Buildings  and  garden. 

50  days 


16 

divide  land  will  find  these  less  fertile  areas  offered  for  sale  at  much 
less  than  the  ordinary  run  of  land.  For  this  reason,  such  areas  are 
often  chosen  for  subdivision.  Doubtless  the  men  who  purchase  these 
tracts  for  subdivision  are  not  infrequently  mistaken  as  to  their  real 
value,  or  at  least  do  not  appreciate  the  actual  difference  in  productivity 
between  lands  of  different  qualities.  At  any  rate,  what  the  prospective 
settler  should  realize  is  that  because  he  sometimes  finds  undesirable 
properties  offered  to  him,  that  is  no  evidence  that  fertile  soils  do  not 
exist  in  California.  Such  soil  may  exist  on  the  other  side  of  the  fence. 
California  is  a  state  of  wonderful  fertility  and  almost  unthinkable 
agricultural  possibilities,  as  anyone  who  wishes  may  convince  himself 
by  proper  investigations. 

The  purpose  of  this  circular,  however,  is  not  to  dwell  upon  the 
great  opportunities  of  the  state,  but  to  point  out  to  the  prospective 
settler  the  difficulties  to  be  avoided,  to  the  end  that  his  success  may 
be  made  more  certain. 

NEED  OF  WATER 

The  area  over  which  certain  crops  can  be  grown  in  this  state  is 
many  times  definitely  determined  by  the  water  supply  or  the  possi- 
bility of  developing  such  supply.  At  least  seven  and  possibly  eight 
of  the  principal  crops  mentioned  on  page  40  of  this  circular  are 
dependent  on  irrigation,  except  perhaps,  when  grown  in  some  of  the 
more  favored  localities  of  the  state.  The  settler  should  look  carefully 
into  everything  that  pertains  to  the  extent,  reliability,  permanency, 
and  cost  of  an  irrigation  water  supply  for  his  farm,  as  outlined  in  a 
subsequent  article,  page  29. 

HARDPAN 

Soils  should  have  good  depth  and  good  drainage.  The  need  of 
drainage  is  hard  to  appreciate  or  even  determine  before  the  land  is 
irrigated  in  areas  of  limited  rainfall.  One  reason  why  analysis  of  the 
soil  is  of  so  little  value  in  ordinary  practice  is  that  the  depth  of  the 
soil  and  the  position  and  character  of  the  hard  pan  usually  affect  the 
productivity  of  virgin  soil  to  a  greater  extent  than  existing  variations 
in  plant  food.  Soils  in  sub-humid  climates  are  peculiarly  prone  to 
possess  layers  of  hard  pan.  These  layers  are  very  irregularly  laid 
down.  Hence,  a  minute  examination  is  required  to  determine  its 
extent  and  possible  injury  on  a  given  piece  of  land.  The  United  States 
Bureau  of  Soils  has,  on  account  of  these  structural  differences,  adopted 
the  rule  of  examining  a  cross-section  of  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  six 
feet  in  western  United  States,  while  elsewhere  three  feet  has  been 
deemed  sufficient. 


17 


DRAINAGE 

Without  natural  or  artificial  drainage,  alkali  is  the  inevitable 
consequence  of  irrigation  wherever  the  evaporation  from  the  soil  is 
greater  than  the  rainfall.  "  Irrigation  without  proper  provision  for 
drainage  has,  in  the  past,  in  very  many  cases,  been  the  cause  of 
abandonment  of  lands  once  abundantly  fruitful."* 

Without  stopping  to  go  into  the  matter  exhaustively,  it  may  be  said 
in  general,  that  those  lands  most  likely  to  be  brought  under  irrigation 
are  the  areas  which  usually  lack  good  natural  drainage.  In  humid 
sections  the  water  table  may  be  within  three  or  even  two  feet  of  the 
surface  without  injurious  results.  In  arid  sections  the  water  table 
should  be  not  nearer  than  five  feet  from  the  surface,  while  a  depth 
of  six  or  more  feet  is  desirable.  This  is  due  to  the  deeper  feeding  area 
of  the  roots  of  plants  in  arid  climates  as  well  as  greater  danger  from 
alkali  where  the  water  table  is  near  the  surface.  No  prediction  can 
be  made  as  to  the  length  of  time  which  will  elapse  before  alkali  will 
appear  under  irrigation.  Clay  lands  usually  suffer  sooner  than  sandy 
ones.  There  are  areas  that  have  been  irrigated  for  more  than  twenty- 
five  years  which  do  not  yet  show  the  need  of  under  drainage.  The 
purpose  of  this  paragraph  is  merely  to  warn  purchasers  of  irrigated 
land  that  they  may  be  required  to  add  to  the  purchase  price  the  cost 
of  tile  drainage.  A  complete  system  of  tile  drainage  may  cost  as  much 
as  forty  dollars  per  acre,  while  it  is  possible  that  sufficient  drainage 
may  be  afforded  in  other  cases  at  a  cost  not  to  exceed  ten  dollars 
per  acre. 

Excellent  opportunities  exist  today  for  the  purchase  and  reclama- 
tion by  tile  drainage  of  lands  that  have  "gone  bad"  under  irrigation. 
The  intending  purchaser  should  be  cautioned,  however  to  try  to 
reclaim  only  lands  which  are  known  to  have  been  fertile.  Lands  which 
have  never  been  known  to  have  grown  profitable  crops  may  well  be 
avoided  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge. 

GOOD  AND  BAD  LANDS 
The  goodness  or  badness  of  land  is  largely  in  relation  to  the  crop 
it  is  intended  to  grow.  Thus  there  are  soils  excellently  adapted  to 
olives  which  will  return  poor  yields  of  wheat  or  barley.  There  are 
vast  areas  in  California  well  adapted  to  grains  and  alfalfa,  on  which 
potatoes  cannot  be  grown  economically  because  of  the  character  of 
the  soil,  and  on  which  oranges  and  lemons  cannot  be  grown  on  account 


*  See  article  by  Dr.  Hilgard,  entitled  "Alkali  Lands — Irrigation  and  Drainage  in  Their 
Mutual  Relation,"  in  the  Report  of  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  the 
year  1890. 


18 

of  the  danger  of  frost.  Certain  lands  which  are  adapted  to  raising 
olives  are  not  worth,  and  in  the  past,  have  not  been  valued  at  more 
than  five  dollars  per  acre  for  other  types  of  farming,  are  now 
valued  and  may  be  worth  one  hundred  dollars  per  acre  for  olives. 
The  fact  that  lands  are  valued  at  much  higher  prices  when  adapted 
to  oranges,  lemons,  or  alfalfa  than  when  adapted  to  grains  has  led 
to  the  placing  upon  the  market  of  a  great  deal  of  land  for  crops  to 
which  it  is  not  adapted.  The  land  is  good  enough  when  used  for 
the  purpose  to  which  it  is  adapted,  but  it  is  bad  when  an  attempt  is 
made  to  use  it  for  some  other  purpose.  Certain  areas  may  be  very  good 
land  when  purchased  at  five  dollars  per  acre  for  grazing  purposes  and 
equally  bad  land  when  purchased  at  fifty  dollars  per  acre  for  alfalfa, 
or  five  hundred  dollars  per  acre  for  oranges.  Yet  there  are  lands  that 
are  good  when  purchased  at  five  hundred  dollars  for  oranges  and 
others  that  are  good  when  purchased  at  fifty  dollars  for  alfalfa.  The 
sale  of  land  for  purposes  to  which  it  is  not  adapted,  and  at  prices 
which  its  adaptation  does  not  justify,  has  caused  greater  losses  and 
greater  misery  than  any  other  thing  connected  with  land  settlement. 

The  College  of  Agriculture  has  definite  information  concerning  types  of  soil 
and  their  adaptation  for  only  a  portion  of  the  state.  For  such  portions  as  are 
known  only  statements  concerning  crop  adaptations  for  the  type  in  general  can 
be  furnished.  No  assurance  of  economic  returns  can  be  made.  Persons  wishing 
information  with  reference  to  any  tract  should  state  specifically  the  number  of 
the  section  and  the  quarter  section  to  which  reference  is  made.  This  informa- 
tion is  not  for  the  purpose  of  passing  upon  the  value  of  the  particular  tract 
but  for  the  purpose  of  determining  to  what  soil  type  the  tract  belongs. 

PURCHASE  OF  LAND 
A  person  buying  farm  land  in  California  seldom  deals  with  the 
owner.  This  is  especially  true  where  large  tracts  are  subdivided  and 
sold  to  settlers.  The  owners  of  such  tracts  ordinarily  place  their 
holdings  in  the  hands  of  a  real  estate  firm  who,  of  course,  handles  the 
sale  on  commission.  But  even  the  members  of  the  real  estate  firm 
seldom,  in  the  case  of  these  large  holdings,  make  the  sale  in  person. 
The  real  estate  firm  employs  agents  of  a  more  or  less  itinerant  character 
who  make  the  actual  sales.  Under  the  present  system,  the  agent 
with  whom  the  purchaser  deals  is  not  infrequently  an  irresponsible 
party  and  cannot  be  found  later  to  substantiate  the  statements  made. 
It  is  therefore  absolutely  necessary  for  the  purchaser  to  act  only  on 
evidence  confirmed  from  other  sources  and  to  sign  no  contracts  that 
he  does  not  fully  understand  and  cannot  fully  verify,  and  to  be 
absolutely  certain  his  titles  to  the  land  and  to  the  water  rights  are 
satisfactory. 


19 

Just  as  elsewhere  in  the  United  States,  there  are  persons,  firms,  or 
corporations  which  make  it  their  business  to  abstract  titles.  In 
California,  such  a  person  or  agency  is  not  usually  called  an  abstractor 
of  titles  but  a  searcher  of  records.  On  smaller  transactions,  moreover, 
it  is  not  customary  to  insist  upon  an  abstract  of  title,  but  to  secure 
in  place  of  it  a  certificate  of  title,  which  is  in  effect  a  statement  by 
the  person,  firm,  or  corporation  that  it  has  examined  the  title  and 
certifies  that  it  is  valid  or  if  the  title  is  not  clear  states  in  what  way 
the  title  is  clouded.  In  some  of  the  larger  towns  may  be  found  an 
office,  perhaps  next  door  to  the  bank,  over  which  is  the  sign  "Title 
Bureau."  This  means  that  the  searcher  of  records  has  qualified  under 
the  state  law  to  issue  for  an  additional  fee  a  policy  of  title  insurance. 
While  the  searcher  of  records  is  not  a  public  officer  or  the  title  bureau 
a  public  agency,  they,  at  present  constitute  the  accepted  method  of 
securing  advice  concerning  land  titles.  Under  existing  conditions,  the 
new  settler  will  do  well  to  secure  title  insurance  before  purchasing  land. 

HOW  TO  LOCATE 

Probably  nothing  can  make  a  man  keen  in  a  horse  trade  save 
experience.  No  law  can  furnish  a  man  with  judgment.  The  United 
States  and  the  State  government  are  endeavoring  to  furnish  informa- 
tion on  which  men  may  base  sound  judgment  if  they  are  level-headed 
and  already  have  some  knowledge  of  farming.  Persons  with  no 
knowledge  of  farming  are  advised  not  to  purchase  farm  lands  in  Cali- 
fornia until  some  months  of  experience  have  brought  them  into  actual 
contact  with  conditions.  It  is,  of  course,  important  to  "help  the 
investor  as  much  as  possible  through  supplying  accurate  data,  but  the 
buyers  must  assume  some  of  the  responsibility  when  they  buy  without 
attempting  to  inform  themselves."  Detailed  soil  surveys  of  certain 
counties  of  California  have  been  made  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Soils  and  more  recently  a  reconnaissance  soil  survey  of  California  has 
been  begun  by  that  bureau  in  co-operation  with  the  California  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station.  At  this  writing  a  map  of  the  Sacramento 
Valley,  involving  four  and  one-half  million  acres,  has  been  completed, 
and  the  other  areas  of  the  state  will  be  completed  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
These  reports  give  an  accurate  and  authoritative  description  of  the 
various  types  of  soil,  their  adaptation  to  different  crops,  their  methods 
of  management,  and  their  ordinary  commercial  value.  "Wherever  they 
are  available  they  should  be  studied  before  lands  are  purchased.  The 
California  State  Immigration  Commission,  with  offices  at  the  Under- 
wood Building,  San  Francisco,  will  assist  those  seeking  to  purchase 
land,  as  will  also  the  California  Development  Board,  with  offices  at 


20 

the  Ferry  Building,  San  Francisco.  Both  these  public  agencies  have 
gathered  a  fund  of  detailed  information  which  is  free  to  all  who 
may  apply.  The  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia may,  through  its  several  stations  and  employees  in  different 
parts  of  the  state,  be  of  service  to  those  who  desire  to  obtain  a 
home  on  the  land.  Many  of  the  counties  maintain,  through  public 
taxation,  boards  of  trade  or  chambers  of  commerce.  If  one  has  decided, 
through  information  received  from  other  sources,  to  locate  in  a  given 
county,  assistance  in  locating  within  the  county  may  be  obtained 
usually  by  addressing  a  letter  to  the  secretary  of  the  board  of  trade 
at  the  county  seat  of  the  county.  A  number  of  counties  also  maintain 
a  county  commissioner  of  horticulture,  who  has  intimate  knowledge 
of  fruit  growing  within  his  county  and  may  usually  be  addressed  at 
the  county  seat. 

There  are,  including  branch  and  deposit  stations,  and  excluding 
professional  libraries,  about  950  libraries  in  California.  Most  of  them 
are  open  to  the  public  for  reference  purposes.  All  these  libraries 
receive  the  publications  of  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  and  some  of  them  contain  other  references  on  agriculture. 
By  consulting  the  librarian,  suitable  references  concerning  the  lead- 
ing features  and  methods  may  be  obtained.  If  you  want  the  help 
which  books  can  give  you  ask  the  librarian  to  assist  you.  No  one  who 
comes  to  California  to  locate  upon  the  land  need  go  without  reasonable 
authoritative  and  accurate  knowledge,  if  he  consults  the  various  sources 
of  information  which  have  been  mentioned  and  which  are  ready 
without  a  charge  to  serve  the  prospective  settler. 

CLIMATE  AS  AFFECTING  CEOP  PKODUCTION* 
Owing  to  its  topography,  prevailing  winds  and  proximity  to  the 
ocean,  California  is  subject  to  a  very  wide  range  of  rainfall,  tempera- 
ture and  humidity,  and  owing  to  the  same  reasons  the  entire  range  of 
these  phases  of  climate  may  be  comprehended  in  the  several  large 
divisions  into  which  the  state  may  be  divided. 

To  those  coming  from  regions  east  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  two 
features  of  the  climate  of  California  will  be  noticeable:  First,  the 
season  of  greatest  rainfall  is  in  the  winter  months,  the  months  of  June, 
July,  and  August  being  almost  devoid  of  rainfall.  Second,  the  lines 
of  equal  temperature  run  for  the  most  part  north  and  south,  rather 
than  east  and  west. 

So  far  as  climate  in  its  bearing  on  crop  production  is  concerned, 
the  state  may  be  divided  into  five  sections,  but  even  in  these  divisions 
there  will  be  some  climatic  features  common  to  all. 

*  By  E.  J.  WiCKSON,  Professor  of  Horticulture. 


21 

The  map  on  the  last  page  indicates  divisions  of  the  state  according 
to  the  prevalence  of  similar  climatic  conditions  which  roughly  deter- 
mine agricultural  adaptations,  viz. : 

1.  Northwest  Coast  Region.  3.  Southern  Coast  Region. 

2.  Central  Coast  Region.  4.  Interior  Valley  Region. 

5.  Mountain  and  Plateau  Region. 

The  Northwest  Coast  Region. — This  section  is  mountainous,  being 
covered  principally  by  the  Coast  Range.  The  valleys  are  relatively 
small  and  irregular.  The  important  climatic  features  of  this  section 
are  the  moderate  temperatures  throughout  the  year,  the  high  annual 
rainfall,  and  the  prevalence  of  high  winds  and  fogs  along  the  coast. 

At  Eureka  in  Humboldt  County  the  highest  temperature  recorded 
is  85.2  (June  6,  1903),  while  the  lowest  is  20  (January  4,  1888).  In 
most  portions  of  this  section  the  rainfall  varies  from  40  to  100  inches. 
This  variation,  however,  is  mainly  due  to  elevation.  It  should  be  noted 
that  from  year  to  year  the  rainfall  may  vary  in  any  one  place  more 
than  100  per  cent,  and  as  stated  above  it  is  always  smallest  in  July 
and  August. 

This  section  most  nearly  resembles  the  east-north  central  and  middle 
Atlantic  states  in  its  agricultural  operations  and  possibilities.  It  is 
eminently  suited  for  the  production  of  forage  grasses  and  clover  and 
to  dairying,  and  has  also  demonstrated  success  with  several  fruits  in 
proper  soils  and  exposures. 

The  Central  Coast  Region, — This  region  includes  coast  slopes,  many 
small  valleys  and  a  few  of  considerable  size,  and  a  large  area  of  foot- 
hills and  mountains  west  of  the  high  ridge  of  the  Coast  Range,  which 
at  several  points  attains  an  elevation  of  about  4000  feet.  Among  the 
valleys  are  those  of  the  San  Francisco  Bay  district — the  pioneer 
regions  of  commercial  crop-growing  and  which  now  constitute  one  of 
the  largest  highly  developed  and  densely  populated  agricultural  dis- 
tricts of  the  state.  Central  in  this  district  lies  the  City  and  County 
of  San  Francisco,  which  enjoys  the  unique  distinction  of  having 
produced  the  tallest  sky-scrapers  and  the  broadest  cabbage  fields  in 
the  state.  North  of  San  Francisco  are  the  coast  valleys  which  are 
great  producers  of  dairy  and  poultry  products,  fruits  and  field  crops, 
and  south  of  San  Francisco  are  the  bay-shore  valleys  long  noted 
for  truck-crops,  fruits — the  prunes  of  Santa  Clara  and  the  apples  of 
Pajaro  valleys — and  the  hay,  grain,  and  sugar  beets  of  Salinas  and 
Santa  Maria  valleys,  while  adjacent  hill  lands  are  largely  used  for 
grazing  and,  on  the  coast  side,  for  the  dairy  industry. 

The  Central  Coast  Region  is  very  diversified  in  topography,  inter- 
mediate in  temperatures  and  rainfall  between  its  neighboring  coast 


22 

districts  north  and  south,  and  it  has  a  range  of  products  wide  as  the 
state  itself,  except  that  citrus  fruits  are  not  commercially  produced, 
although  grown  by  amateurs  at  favoring  elevations  and  exposures. 

The  Southern  Coast  Region.— This  region  extends  from  the  point 
where  the  coast  takes  a  sharp  eastward  turn  and  proceeds  southward 
to  the  southern  boundary  of  the  state.  Its  width  is  determined  by  the 
distance  of  the  high  ridge  of  the  Coast  Range  from  the  ocean — narrow 
at  the  west,  increasing  toward  the  central  part,  where  the  San  Gabriel 
and  Santa  Ana  valleys  extend  northerly  and  easterly  to  the  foot  of 
Mt.  San  Bernardino,  and  then  narrowing  again  to  its  southern  limit 
just  below  San  Diego  Bay.  Owing  to  its  environment  and  exposure, 
as  well  as  its  latitude,  this  region  has  more  heat  than  the  more 
northerly  coast  regions,  though  in  its  extensions  away  from  the  ocean 
it  has  had  in  some  places  and  at  long  intervals  a  brief  drop  in  tempera- 
ture to  a  degree  as  low  as  other  valleys  with  similar  elevations.  It  is 
on  the  whole,  however,  most  equable  in  its  temperatures  and  by  this 
widely  known  characteristic  has  attracted  settlement  and  development 
in  some  respects  beyond  other  districts  of  the  state.  The  products  of 
the  district  are  large  and  various,  including  most  of  the  present  pro- 
duction of  citrus  fruits  and  walnuts,  most  of  the  beans,  much  of  the 
sugar  beets  and  truck  crops  for  overland  shipment  and  dairy,  poultry, 
hay,  grain,  and  orchard  fruits  for  a  part  of  its  local  consumption.  It 
is  for  the  most  part  an  irrigated  district,  though  some  crops  are 
successfuly  made  along  the  coast  by  rainfall. 

The  Interior  Valleys  Region. — This  region  extends  from  the  north 
end  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  southward  through  the  length  of  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley  to  the  Tehachapi  Mountains,  which  form  its 
southern  boundary.  This  pair  of  connected  valleys  constitute  what 
is  properly  called  "The  Great  Valley  of  California,"  about  400  miles 
long  and  from  40  to  60  miles  wide.  It  contains  a  larger  body  of  pro- 
ductive land  than  any  other  subdivision  of  the  state.  Central  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Great  Valley  are  the  deltas  of  the  two  great  rivers 
whose  names  designate  their  respective  valleys.  The  break  in  the 
Coast  Range  which  gives  outlet  to  their  waters  to  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco,  also  admits  an  interior  extension  of  coast  influences  which 
modify  climatic  conditions  over  these  deltas  and  adjacent  lands,  as  is 
indicated  by  the  circular  intrusion  of  Division  2  into  Division  4  as 
shown  on  the  map.  This  circular  area  is  somewhat  different  in  climatic 
characters,  however,  from  that  of  either  of  the  divisions  to  which  it  is 
related,  for  it  is  a  blending  of  the  two. 

In  the  extreme  southeast  part  of  the  state  is  another  area  marked 
Division  4  which  is  thus  connected  with  the  Great  Valley  because  it 


23 

has  closer  resemblance  thereto,  both  in  characters  and  products,  than 
to  any  other  region  of  the  state.  It  comprises  the  Imperial  Valley  and 
other  valleys  adjacent  to  the  Colorado  River.  It  differs  from  the 
Great  Valley  in  having  a  higher  temperature  both  in  summer  and 
winter  and  in  its  rainfall,  which  is  practically  negligible,  as  all 
cropping  is  conditioned  upon  irrigation. 

The  Great  Valley  differs  from  the  coast  regions  west  of  it  in  having 
a  lower  winter  temperature,  because  its  dominating  environment  is 
the  snow-clad  Sierra  on  its  east  side,  while  the  dominating  environ- 
ment of  the  coast  is  the  ocean.  This  contrast  is  more  marked  through 
the  central  and  southward  stretches  of  the  Great  Valley.  Another 
contrast  is  found  in  summer  temperatures  which  may  average  more 
than  twenty  degrees  higher  on  the  east  than  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Coast  Range,  because  the  ocean  then  has  a  cooling  effect  upon  the 
regions  open  to  its  influence. 

In  rainfall  the  Great  Valley  has  such  marked  differences  that 
generalization  is  impossible.  Roughly  speaking  the  Sacramento  Valley 
may  be  said  to  have  from  20  to  40  inches  of  rainfall  in  different  years, 
while  the  San  Joaquin  has  from  4  to  16.  This  variation  in  rainfall  is, 
however,  overcome  by  irrigation  which  is  practiced  in  the  Great  Valley 
over  a  greater  acreage  of  land  than  in  any  other  region  of  the  state. 
The  products  include  all  grown  anywhere  in  the  state. 

The  Mountain  and  Plateau  Region. — It  has  been  found  by  observa- 
tion during  many  years  that  what  are  known  as  valley  conditions 
prevail  to  an  elevation  of  about  fifteen  hundred  feet  over  the  rolling 
region  known  as  the  "foothills" — which  are  the  steps  up  to  the  high 
ranges.  Above  this  elevation  winter  temperatures  fall  lower,  rainfall 
increases,  snow  flurries  begin,  and  thence  upward  mountain  valleys  and 
plateaux  are  found  at  different  levels  up  to  about  six  thousand  feet, 
which  is  about  the  top  of  California's  agricultural  lands,  and  above 
four  thousand  feet  such  lands  are  used  principally  for  summer  pas- 
turage. This  mountain  region  has  a  winter  like  that  of  the  eastern 
states  with  a  great  precipitation  of  rain  and  snow  to  cause  great 
rivers  to  flow  down  the  west  side  of  the  Sierra  and  give  the  state  its 
invaluable  and  ample  water  supply  for  power  and  irrigation.  In  the 
valleys  among  the  great  snow  mountains  there  are  farming  districts 
of  considerable  present  production  and  great  future  promise.  The 
most  marked  character  of  these  high  lands  is  the  limitations  placed 
upon  cropping  by  the  short  growing  season  and  the  frequency  of 
frosts  during  the  spring  and,  at  the  higher  elevations,  even  during  the 
summer  months.  Therefore  this  division  differs  most  markedly  from 
other  California  regions  and  has  closer  resemblance  to  some  of  the 


24 


interior  states  than  to  the  coast  and  valley  areas  of  our  own  state. 
In  this  region  there  is  a  modification  of  low  temperatures  from  the 
north  to  the  south,  for  the  mountain  region  is  more  open  to  the 
influence  of  north  and  south  latitude  and  is  not  so  fully  dominated 
by  local  topography  and  ocean  influences,  which  give  to  the  rest  af 
the  state  its  unique  climatic  characters. 

CHAEACTERISTICS  OF  CALIFORNIA  SOILS* 
In  the  humid  regions  of  the  world,  and  especially  in  the  humid 
region  of  the  United  States,  practically  nine-tenths  of  the  soils  are 
either  of  residual  or  of  glacial  origin.  The  glacial  soils  have  been 
transported  and  deposited  by  ice,  and  while  the  glacial  deposits  may 
be  very  deep,  the  true  soil  is  not  deep.  The  subsoil  is  usually  heavier 
than  the  surface,  often  clayey,  and  the  practical  feeding  depth  of 
roots  is  usually  less  than  four  feet.     The  residual  soils  are  much  more 

extensive  than  the  glacial  soils. 
They  are  formed  by  the  destruction 
of  rock  masses,  the  disintegrated 
and  decomposed  fragments  accumu- 
lating on  the  surface  of  the  hard 
rock  to  form  the  soil  mass.  Resi- 
dual soils  usually  have  a  surface 
soil  six  or  eight  inches  deep,  resting 
on  heavier  material  that  grades  to 
a  clay  at  two  or  three  feet  in  depth. 
At  greater  depths  rock  fragments 
are  found  in  the  clay  and  these 
grow  more  numerous  until  the  mass 
is  largely  broken  or  "rotten  rock," 
and  finally  the  solid  rock  mass  is 
reached.     (See  Fig.  2.)      The  total 


LOAHY 
SOIL 


CLAYEY 
SUBSOIL 


^^%m%  rock 

ROCK 


Fig.  2. — Section  of  a  typical  resi- 
dual soil  showing  gradation  from 
soil  through  clay,  rotten  rock  to 
solid  rock. 


depth  of  the  soil  mass  above  the  rock  varies  greatly,  but  usually  is  less 
than  four  feet. 

In  the  humid  regions,  the  transplanted  soils,  other  than  those 
formed  by  glacial  action,  are  of  little  extent.  The  flood  plains  and 
bench  lands  along  the  rivers  and  creeks  are  exceedingly  productive,  but 
their  total  area  is  small  compared  with  the  residual  and  glacial  soils. 

In  California,  as  in  all  sub-humid  regions,  the  residual  soils  avail- 
able for  agriculture  are  of  limited  extent.  They  are  found  on  hill  slopes 
and  on  mountain  sides  and  their  topographic  position  makes  irrigation 
exceedingly  difficult  or  impossible,  while  the  shallow  soil  mass  makes 


By  CHARLES  F.   Shaw,   Professor  of  Soil  Technology. 


25 


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26 


dry  farming  precarious.  In  the  Coast  Ranges  and  on  the  Sierra 
foothills  are  some  successfully  farmed  residual  soils  but  their  total 
area  is  relatively  small. 

By  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  agricultural  lands  in  the  state  are 
transported  soils.  For  uncounted  ages  the  winter  rains  have  been 
washing  the  rock  fragments  from  the  mountain  sides  and  carrying 
the  material  out  to  the  valleys,  spreading  the  mass  out  as  broad 
sloping  alluvial  fans  or  as  relatively  flat  valley  floor.  The  accumu- 
lation of  sediments  in  the  valleys  is  often  hundreds  or  even  thousands 
of  feet  deep  (Fig.  1). 

Soils  formed  in  this  way  may  be  quite  uniform  to  great  depths 
or  may  be  made  up  of  successive  layers  of  varying  texture,  sands, 
silts,  gravels  or  clays.  As  the  soils  are  laid  down  a  little  at  a  time, 
year  after  year,  they  have  been  acted  upon  by  the  weathering  agents, 
breaking  up  the  particles  and  making  the  plant  food  quite  available. 
Under  the  climatic  conditions  that  exist,  with  the  hot  dry  summers 
and  the  low  rainfall  coming  in  winter,  the  weathering  action  of  air 
and  water,  the  beneficial  action  of  bacteria  and  the  formation  of  humus 
in  the  soil,  occur  to  considerable  depths.  Roots  ordinarily  penetrate 
to  depths  of  six  to  eight  feet  below  the  surface.  In  studying  the  soil, 
it  is  necessary  to  consider  at  least  a  six  foot  section  instead  of  the 
usual  three  foot  section  of  the  humid  regions.  The  climatic  conditions 
of  the  region  and  the  mode  of  formation  of  the  soils,  have  brought 
about  many  features  that  are  not  common  to  the  soils  of  a  humid 
region.    Owing  to  the  lack  of  rain,  the  soils  have  never  been  subject  to 

any  degree  of  leaching  and  most 
of  the  soluble  materials  have  been 
left  in  the  soil  masses. 


^T 


SOIL 


HARDPAN 


SOIL 


Fig.  3. — A  hardpan  layer  with 
loose  soil  material  beneath  it.  Break- 
ing up  the  hardpan  will  allow  roots 
and  water  to  enter  the  substratum 
of  good  soil. 


Hardpan. — Where  the  soils  are 
old  and  have  been  subjected  for 
thousands  of  years  to  an  annual 
rainfall  that  has  wetted  the  mass 
to  a  depth  of  only  two  or  three  feet, 
some  of  the  soluble  material  has 
been  carried  down  and  deposited, 
cementing  the  grains  together  to 
form  a  hardpan.  In  this  way,  the 
iron  and  lime-cemented  hardpans 
common  to  the  older,  thoroughly 
weathered,  red  and  brown  soils, 
have  been  formed.  In  most  cases. 
the  material  beneath  the  hardpan 


27 


-wm, 


mMwmti 


WE§mm 


7V, 


mmAwmm 


SOIL 


HARDPAN 


CEHENTED 
GRAVEL. 
SAND. 
AND  CLAY 


is  loose  soil  very  similar  to  that  above  the  hardpan  (Fig.  3),  and  if 
the  pan  is  broken  by  dynamite  or  other  means,  irrigation  waters  and 
plant  roots  will  readily  work  down  into  the  underlying  soil  mass.  In 
such  cases  the  hardpan  is  not  a 
serious  factor  as  it  ordinarily  re- 
cements  very  slowly.  In  some  cases 
the  hardpan  is  underlaid  by  a 
compact,  semi-cemented  layer  of 
soil,  sand  and  gravel  that  is  prac- 
tically impenetrable  to  water  or  to 
plant  roots.  (See  Fig.  4.)  With 
such  soils,  dynamiting  the  hardpan 
is  of  little  or  no  value  as  there 
is  no  good  soil  beneath  for  the 
roots  to  penetrate  and  no  oppor- 
tunity for  drainage  or  aeration 
through  the  substratum. 

There  is  another  class  of  hard- 
pan  that  has  been  formed  at  the 
same  time  that  the  soil  was  formed. 
This  occurs  where  variations  in  the 
soil  -  forming  activities  caused  a 
layer  of  soil  to  be  deposited,  then  a 
layer  of  material  that  cemented  to 
a  hardpan,  then  another  layer  of 
soil,  another  layer  of  hardpan,  and 
so  on.  (Fig.  5.)  These  hardpan 
layers  are  hard  to  handle,  as  blast- 
ing is  not  satisfactory  unless  each 
of  the  layers  is  broken.  The  hard- 
pan  layers  do  not,  however,  exist  as 
continuous  sheets  because  in  the 
process  of  formation  of  the  soil, 
portions  were  washed  away,  the 
space  being  filled  with  other  soil 
material.  This,  together  with  the 
cracked  and  sometimes  rather  soft. 


Fig.  4. — Hardpan  layer  with 
compact  material  beneath.  Break- 
ing the  hardpan  will  be  of  little 
benefit  because  of  the  cemented 
nature  of  the  substratum. 


Fig.  5. — Soil  with  several  layers 
of  hardpan  with  soil  between  the 
layers. 


fact   that   the   hardpan   is   often 
gives  opportunity  for  irrigation 
water  and  plant  roots  to  penetrate  to  considerable  depths. 

Alkali. — Wherever  the  drainage  conditions  are  poor  and  there  is 
a  larger  amount  of  water  passing  from  the  surface  by  evaporation 
than  passes  down  through  the  soil  mass,  there  is  the  possibility  of  an 
accumulation  of  soluble  material  or  ' '  alkali ' '  on  the  surface.     The 


28 

term  "alkali,"  as  ordinarily  used,  includes  any  soluble  materials 
present  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  injurious  to  plants.  The  most 
common  materials  are  sodium  chloride  or  common  salt,  sodium  sul- 
phate or  glaubers  salt,  and  sodium  carbonate  or  washing  soda.  This 
"alkali"  is  not  necessarily  brought  into  the  soil  from  some  other 
location.  It  is  merely  a  regrouping  of  the  chemicals  that  existed  in 
the  original  rock,  and  the  concentration  of  these  compounds  in  the 
surface  soil  because  of  excessive  evaporation. 

If  the  soil  has  good  natural  drainage,  any  excess  of  water  will 
percolate  through  the  soil  and  will  seep  out  to  the  country  drainage 
channels,  carrying  with  it  in  solution,  small  quantities  of  the  soluble 
salts.  In  such  cases,  the  waters  evaporated  from  the  surface  cannot 
exceed  the  amount  that  passes  down  through  the  soil,  and  alkali 
accumulations  cannot  occur. 

If  the  natural  drainage  conditions  are  not  good,  artificial  drainage 
will  be  necessary  if  the  land  is  to  be  irrigated  and  farmed.  In  arid 
regions,  the  irrigation  of  poorly  drained  lands  will  produce  conditions 
that  will  ultimately  bring  about  the  accumulation  of  injurious  amounts 
of  alkali.  It  is  necessary  to  study  the  drainage  conditions  carefully, 
noting  the  character  of  the  soil  with  respect  to  permeability  and  the 
penetration  of  water,  the  character  of  the  substratum,  the  slope  of 
the  land  and  the  possible  outlet  for  drainage  waters.  The  possibility 
of  drainage  waters  seeping  into  the  soil  from  higher  lying  lands 
should  also  be  investigated. 

Texture  and  Structure. — The  texture  and  structure  of  the  soils 
need  considerable  attention.  Because  of  the  low  rainfall  and  absence 
of  leaching,  the  coarser  soils,  sands,  and  sandy  loams  are  much  more 
productive  in  an  arid  region  than  are  similar  soils  in  a  humid  country. 
If  the  soil  is  too  loose  and  open,  however,  there  is  a  great  difficulty  in 
irrigating,  owing  to  excess  seepage  and  in  addition  the  humus  is  readily 
"burned  out"  and  lost.  On  the  other  extreme,  the  clays  and  clay 
adobes  are  so  compact  and  impervious  that  they  are  very  difficult 

to  irrigate,  the  water  penetrating 
very  slowly.  Such  soils  are  also 
difficult  to  till  and  to  maintain  in 
a  proper  state  of  firmness. 

The  term  "adobe"  does  not  in- 
dicate  a   specific  kind  of   soil  but 
refers  to  the  structure.     There  are 
A       1  v        .,         -,  clay  adobe,  loam  adobe,  and  even 

Pig.   6. — An   adobe  soil,  on  dry-  J  ' 

ing,  shrinks  markedly  and  breaks  into        sandy     loam     adobe,     although     the 
blocks,  with  wide  cracks  between.        kUer   ig   yery    rare       The   name    ig 


29 

given  to  any  soil  which  on  drying  shrinks  markedly  and  breaks  into 
blocks  with  wide  cracks  between.  (See  Fig.  6.)  An  adobe  structure 
is  undesirable  because  the  soils  dry  out,  not  only  from  the  surface  but 
also  from  the  sides  of  the  wide  cracks.  In  irrigating,  the  water  must 
first  fill  the  cracks  and  then  slowly  soak  into  the  hard  baked  block. 

On  wetting,  the  blocks  swell  up  and  close  the  cracks,  which  reopen 
again  on  drying.  Considerable  injury  to  plants  may  occur  through 
the  breaking  of  roots  that  cross  the  lines  of  the  cracks  and  through 
the  drying  of  many  of  the  feeding  roots. 

The  soils  of  California  are  exceedingly  productive.  They  may  be 
compared  to  the  rich  bottom  lands  of  the  humid  regions.  The  un- 
favorable conditions  that  may  exist,  such  as  hardpan,  alkali,  poor 
drainage,  poor  structure,  etc.,  can  be  readily  recognized.  The  presence 
of  alkali  can  be  determined  by  chemical  means  or  by  noting  the 
character  of  the  vegetation  and  the  condition  of  the  surface  soil. 
Drainage  conditions,  texture  and  structure,  and  the  presence  of  hard- 
pan  can  be  determined  by  examining  the  soil,  boring  in  it  with  a  soil 
auger  ( Fig.  7 ) .  The  prospective  settler  should  not  be  content  with  the 
examination  of  the  surface  soil,  but  should  bore  frequently,  examining 
the  soil  to  a  depth  of  at  least  six  feet  and  carefully  noting  conditions, 
bearing  in  mind  that  plants  that  would  in  a  humid  region  send  their 
roots  two  or  three  feet  into  the  soil,  will  here  have  a  root  penetration 
of  six  to  twelve  or  more  feet.* 

IRRIGATION! 

As  a  general  rule,  irrigation  is  either  a  valuable  aid  to  agriculture 
or  a  necessity  throughout  California,  so  that  the  settler  should  look 
carefully  into  everything  that  pertains  to  the  extent,  reliability,  per- 
manency, and  cost  of  an  irrigation  water  supply  for  his  farm. 


*  Dr.  E.  W.  Hilgard  writes :  "While  much  detail  cannot  of  course  be  given  within  its 
scope,  I  think  the  part  dealing  with  the  selection  of  land  should  be  somewhat  enlarged,  as 
being  of  prime  importance,  and  in  some  respects  most  likely  to  give  the  newcomer  from  the 
humid  region  trouble. 

"First,  I  think  it  should  be  told  him  somewhat  more  definitely  that  the  light  sandy  and 
silty  nature  of  our  soils  is  not,  as  would  be  the  case  in  the  East,  a  sign  of  poverty,  but  that 
these  are  among  our  most  substantial  lands.  And  as  he  will  naturally  be  looking  for  a 
'substantial  subsoil,'  he  should  be  told  that  the  surface  soil  here  is  not  from  three  to  nine 
inches  deep,  but  that  it  counts  by  feet,  usually  three  or  more,  and  the  absence  of  a  subsoil 
does  not  mean  that  the  land  will  be  'leachy,'  but  is  a  distinct  advantage  for  root  penetration. 
He  should  also  be  told  that  a  gray  soil  in  California  is  not  necessarily  poor  in  humus,  and 
that  the  surface  foot  very  frequently  contains  less  humus  than  the  second  and  third  foot, 
where  the  development  of  the  roots,  from  the  decay  of  which  the  humus  is  usually  derived, 
is  most  copious. 

"The  somewhat  elaborate  discussion  of  hardpan  may  lead  the  newcomer  to  believe  that 
hardpans  are  the  most  prominent  features  of  California  soils;  whereas  the  great  depth  and 
uniformity  of  soil  masses  is  certainly  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  bulk  of  California 
lands." 

t  By  Frank  Adams,  Irrigation  Manager,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department 
of   Agriculture. 


30 

For  the  most  part  it  is  no  longer  possible  in  California  to  obtain 
independent  individual  water  supplies  for  irrigation  by  direct  diver- 
sion from  streams.  In  general,  therefore,  the  settler  must  obtain  his 
irrigation  water  (a)  by  residence  within  a  municipal  irrigation  dis- 
trict, within  which  all  landowners  share  equally  in  the  district  water 
supply,  and  all  legally  qualified  voters  have  an  equal  voice  in  its 
control  and  management ;  ( b )  by  purchasing  stock  in  a  mutual,  non- 
profit-making,  water  company  having  water  available,  in  which  case 
the  water  usually  becomes  appurtenant  to  the  particular  farm  or  the 
particular  tract  irrigated,  and  the  water  users  immediately  or  ulti- 
mately (depending  on  how  much  land  within  the  tract  or  project  has 
been  sold)  control  the  water  system;  (c)  by  contracting  with  a  com- 
mercial water  company  for  water  service,  sometimes  requiring  the 
purchase  of  a  "water  right"  apart  and  separate  from  the  land  title; 
or  (d)  by  means  of  a  well  and  pumping  plant  developed  or  to  be 
developed  on  the  farm  purchased. 

No  water  company  can  deliver  more  water  than  it  controls  and  the 
company  undertaking  to  furnish  water,  whether  it  be  a  mutual  com- 
pany or  a  commercial  company  organized  for  profit,  should  be  required 
to  give  evidence  that  it  has  not  "over  sold"  its  supply.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  the  water  company  "bought  into"  has  in  it  the 
elements,  including  the  financial  resources,  of  regular  and  reliable 
water  service.  If  the  settler  is  counting  on  obtaining  his  irrigation 
supply  from  a  well  on  his  own  farm  he  should  take  all  possible  means 
to  satisfy  himself  that  a  well  will  yield  a  sufficient  supply  of  good 
water  at  a  depth  from  which  he  can  afford  to  pump.  Publications 
of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  of  the  Water  Resources  Branch  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  will  help  in  this  regard. 

The  cost  of  irrigation  water  should  not  be  overlooked  when  figuring 
on  the  cost  of  developing  a  California  farm.  In  irrigation  districts 
this  cost  is  paid  in  the  form  of  taxes  levied  to  meet  the  expenses  of 
operation,  maintenance,  and  betterments,  and  the  interest,  and  ulti- 
mately also  the  principal,  on  outstanding  bond  issues.  This  may  and 
usually  does  amount  to  several  dollars  per  acre  per  year.  In  the  case 
of  mutual  water  companies,  both  the  initial  cost  of  the  water  stock 
(this  is  sometimes  included  in  the  cost  of  the  land)  and  the  annual 
assessments  or  water  charges  are  involved.  In  some  parts  of  Southern 
California  shares  in  the  mutual  companies  cost  at  the  rate  of  $125  to 
$250  per  acre.  The  annual  cost  of  water  to  the  irrigator  obviously 
includes  both  interest  on  this  original  investment  and  the  annual  main- 
tenance and  operation  charge.  Where  "water  rights"  are  purchased 
separately  from  land  their  cost,  in  the  main  central  valley,  varies  from 


31 

$5  to  $20  per  acre  and  the  annual  charge  from  50  cents  to  about  $2.25 
per  acre.  Where  water  is  paid  for  by  the  acre-foot  (the  quantity  that 
will  cover  one  acre  one  foot  deep),  $1.50  is  not  an  unusual  charge, 
although  it  may  be  more  or  less.  Where  it  is  paid  for  by  the  miner's 
inch  (ll1^  gallons  per  minute  according  to  California  statute;  nine 
gallons  per  minute — the  original  miner's  inch  in  California — in 
Southern  California),  it  may  cost  a  few  cents  or  it  may  cost  50  or 
60  cents  per  inch  running  continuously  for  twenty-four  hours,  totalling 
from  about  $5  to  $20  or  more  per  acre  per  year.  Obviously  only 
products  yielding  a  high  gross  return  will  justify  the  larger  of  the 
charges  mentioned.  If  an  individual  pumping  plant  is  to  be  installed 
the  usual  initial  cost  of  installation  for  a  forty-acre  alfalfa  farm  will 
vary  from,  say,  $25  to  $40  per  acre  where  the  lift  does  not  exceed 
50  feet.  Circular  No.  117  of  this  Station  gives  information  about  the 
installation  and  cost  of  small  pumping  plants. 

The  amount  of  water  needed  for  irrigation  in  California  cannot  be 
stated  definitely  in  a  few  words  because  it  varies  so  widely,  chiefly 
according  to  soil  and  crop.  When  bargaining  for  certain  quantities 
settlers  should  know  whether  the  water  is  to  be  measured  at  the  point 
of  use  or  at  the  point  it  is  taken  from  the  canal,  possibly  one-half  mile 
away,  for  transit  losses  from  small  earthen  ditches  are  sometimes  very 
large.  For  alfalfa  in  the  central  valley  probably  2%  acre-feet  per  year 
is  an  average  requirement;  very  heavy  soils  will  not  always  absorb 
this  amount  and  very  light  soils  ordinarily  receive  more,  the  use  of 
4  acre-feet  per  year  not  being  uncommon  and  sometimes  apparently 
not  unreasonable.  Grain  and  cultivated  field  crops,  such  as  sugar  beets 
and  potatoes,  need  less.  Deciduous  orchards  mostly  get  along  well 
with  about  1  acre-foot,  net,  per  year,  where  the  land  irrigated  is  not 
too  steep  and  it  is  well  cultivated;  citrus  orchards  sometimes  receive 
as  little  as  0.8  acre-foot  per  year  (say  1  miner's  inch  to  eight  acres 
irrigated),  but  more  frequently  are  given  twice  that  amount.  Settlers 
should  not  be  satisfied  to  accept  less  water  than  well-kept  and  successful 
farms  in  the  neighborhood  chosen  are  receiving. 

Finally,  the  settler  without  irrigation  experience  should  not  expect 
to  learn  the  art  of  irrigation  all  at  once.  With  land  well  prepared, 
however,  practice  will  soon  enable  him  to  work  with  the  necessary 
efficiency,  but  he  must  wisely  choose  both  his  methods  of  preparing 
land  and  his  methods  of  applying  water. 

FAKM  LABOR 

Anyone  who  desires  to  employ  labor  or  to  secure  farm  employ- 
ment needs  to  understand  that  the  early  ranchers  of  California  were 


32 

largely  of  Southern  origin  and  naturally  brought  with  them  the 
traditional  relations  between  the  employer  and  employed  to  which  they 
were  accustomed,  although  the  employed  have  not  been  negroes  to  any 
considerable  extent.  The  size  of  their  enterprises,  sometimes  gigantic, 
the  character  of  the  climate  and  the  variety  of  the  population,  have 
tended  to  maintain  these  distinctions.  There  may  be  several  social 
strata  on  a  single  ranch.  The  relation  between  farmer  and  farm  hand 
which  has  largely  existed  in  northeastern  United  States  does  not 
obtain  ordinarily  in  California.  No  one  can  understand  the  farm 
labor  problem  unless  he  recognizes  this  important  fact.  It  is  both 
social  and  economic,  and  both  factors  are  different  from  many  other, 
perhaps  most  other,  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  farm  labor 
problem  in  California  is  a  cross  between  Mexico  and  Georgia  tradi- 
tions, supervised  in  these  later  days  by  the  New  England  intellect. 

There  are  three  classes  of  white  farm  labor  in  California.  The 
regular  native  farm  hands,  although  employed  by  the  day,  are  regarded 
as  regular  employees,  being  furnished  board  and  lodging.  Usually 
they  are  teamsters,  as  few  foreigners  know  how  to  handle  the  six  and 
eight  horse  teams  which  are  the  pride  of  the  native  California  farm 
hand.  The  class  of  labor  is  satisfactory  and  reliable.  The  second 
class  is  the  transient  or  hobo,  who  may  or  may  not  be  a  native 
American.  They  are  available  during  harvest  and  other  rush  times. 
This  class  sleeps  in  its  own  blankets  wherever  circumstances  permit, 
but  is  usually  furnished  meals  by  the  ranch.  The  third  class  of  white 
labor  consists  of  the  foreign  immigrant,  who  has  come  to  this  country 
to  make  a  home  of  his  own.  He  may  be  Italian,  Russian,  Portuguese, 
Armenian,  or  of  other  European  nationality.  Italians  are  disposed  to 
work  in  the  wine  vineyards  and  dairies;  Portuguese  in  dairies  and  on 
vegetable  and  deciduous  fruit  ranches;  Russians  in  the  hay  field  and 
at  grape  picking.  Italians  and  Russians  prefer  contract  work,  especi- 
ally in  the  grape  harvest,  but  may  be  hired  by  the  day.  Nearly  all 
contract  laborers  care  for  themselves  in  camps  or  other  quarters  fur- 
nished by  the  ranches.  Oriental  labor  consists  of  Chinese,  Japanese, 
and  Hindus,  of  which  the  Japanese  are  at  present  most  abundant. 
The  Japanese  and  Chinese  prefer  working  by  contract  or  piece  work 
wherever  possible.  Nearly  all  the  grape  crops  are  harvested  in  this 
way.  Labor  is  furnished  by  an  Oriental  contractor,  who  gets  his 
profits  from  commissions  and  board.  The  Japanese  and  Chinese  always 
lodge  and  board  apart  from  other  nationalities.  These  races  can  out- 
strip any  other  class  of  laborers  in  grape  picking  and  similar  forms 
of  work,  because  of  the  Oriental  habit  of  "squatting." 


33 

Aside  from  the  employment  which  is  constant  in  diversified  farm- 
ing, the  seasons  of  employment  in  the  central  San  Joaquin  Valley  are 
as  follows : 

The  farmer's  season  may  be  said  to  begin  in  October  and  November, 
at  which  time  the  plowing,  preparation  of  the  land,  and  the  seeding 
of  barley  and  wheat  occur.  Where  citrus  fruits  are  raised,  harvesting 
goes  on  at  this  time. 

During  January  and  February :  Vineyard  and  orchard  plowing  and 
pruning ;  alfalfa  seeding  and  late  grain  seeding. 

During  May  and  June  :  Grain  hay  harvest.  The  first  alfalfa  harvest 
also  begins  at  this  time  and  continues  until  October. 

During,  July,  August,  and  September :  Shipping  grapes  and  decid- 
uous fruits  are  harvested. 

During  September  and  October:  Muscat  or  raisin  grapes  and  the 
wine  grapes  are  picked.    Figs  are  harvested. 

The  working  rate  of  wages  existing  in  1914  in  the  central  San 
Joaquin  Valley  is  reported  by  Mr.  S.  Parker  Frisselle,  who  has  fur- 
nished much  of  the  information  concerning  farm  labor,  to  be  as  shown 
in  the  following  table  : 

Prices  of  Farm  Labor 
General  ranch  labor — 

Winter  months $1.25  to  1.50  per  day 

Summer  months . 1.50  to  2.00  per  day 

Hay  and  alfalfa  harvest 1.75  to  2.75  per  day 

Fruit  harvest 1.75  to  2.75  per  day 

Muscat  grape  picking 2.50  to  3.00  per  100  trays  of  20  to  22  lbs. 

Wine  grape  picking 1.75  to  2.25  per  ton 

Vine  and  tree  pruning 1.50  to  2.00  per  day 

Excepting  the  piece  work  given  above,  all  figures  include  board.  Board  on 
ranches  in  this  district  is  figured  at  fifty  cents  per  day. 

GETTING  STARTED 
Assume  a  man  has  $5000  to  invest  and  that  he  desires  eventually 
to  secure  a  gross  income  of  $4000  per  year,  but  is  willing  to  accept 
less  in  the  beginning,  how  is  he  to  proceed?  The  discussion  which 
follows  is  intended  to  suggest  that  a  person  with  a  small  or  insufficient 
capital,  by  economy  and  self-sacrifice,  may  achieve  a  satisfactory  com- 
petence. The  main  items  to  be  considered  in  estimating  the  probable 
or  possible  outcome  are  illustrated  by  a  concrete,  although  imaginary, 
example.  In  order  to  caution  the  reader  against  taking  the  figures 
here  mentioned  too  literally,  there  follows  a  discussion  of  the  applica- 
tion of  the  particular  illustration  to  existing  conditions. 


34 

Whether  the  figures  apply  to  any  given  place  or  time  is  wholly 
immaterial  so  far  as  the  involved  principles  are  concerned.  The 
intelligent  reader  will  realize  that  yields  and  values  will  vary  with 
the  locality  and  that  what  is  true  of  prices  of  land  and  products  today 
may  not  be  true  tomorrow.  The  purpose  of  the  discussion  throughout 
the  circular  is  to  state  principles  and  methods  by  means  of  concrete 
illustrations.  Its  value  to  the  reader  will  depend  upon  his  ability  to 
apply  the  principles  and  methods  suggested  to  the  particular  conditions 
which  he  may  meet. 

First  Year. — The  first  act  should  be  to  set  aside  $500  for  family 
expenses  during  the  first  year.  Assuming  the  purchase  of  sixty  acres 
of  undeveloped  land  with  water  rights  attached  at  $100  per  acre,  or 
a  total  of  $6000,  he  may  pay  $1000  upon  the  land,  set  aside  $1000  for 
buildings,  $1000  for  teams,  machinery  and  tools,  and  $500  for  running 
expenses,  including  water  charges.  He  may  purchase  a  four-horse 
team  and  will  spend  most  of  the  first  year  in  leveling,  checking  and 
seeding  his  land.  He  has  left  $1000  with  which  to  buy  ten  cows,  a 
couple  of  sows,  and  a  few  chickens.  Most  of  these  will  be  purchased 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  year  and  not  more  than  $300  cash  income 
should  be  assumed  during  this  year. 

Second  Year. — Since  the  owner  is  now  going  to  get  his  pay  check 
every  month,  he  may  pay  the  interest  on  $5000  at  6  per  cent  with 
the  $300  and  meet  his  family  and  running  expenses  out  of  current 
income.  During  this  year  his  cows,  bull  calves,  pigs  and  chickens  may 
bring  in  a  thousand  dollars,  while  another  thousand  dollars  may  be 
received  from  the  sale  of  alfalfa.  Assuming  running  expenses  to  be 
$700,  living  expenses  $500,  and  interest  $300,  there  is  left  $500.  With 
this  sum  five  cows  and  a  bull  may  be  purchased. 

Third  Year. — This  year  the  return  from  dairy  products  and  live- 
stock may  be  assumed  to  be  $1500  while,  on  account  of  the  greater  age 
of  the  alfalfa,  $1000  may  again  be  assumed  from  that  source.  Assum- 
ing the  running  expenses  to  have  increased  to  $1000,  the  family 
expenses  to  $700,  the  total  outlay  will  be  $2000,  leaving  $500  with 
which  to  buy  five  additional  cows. 

Fourth  Year. — The  returns  from  alfalfa  may  be  reduced  this  year 
to  $800,  while  the  other  returns  may  be  increased  to  $2000,  making 
a  total  of  $2800.  Allowing  for  increase  in  running  expenses  the  yearly 
outlay  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

Running  expenses   $1,200.00 

Family  expenses  700.00 

Interest  300.00 

Total  $2^20000" 

The  balance  would  thus  be  $600,  with  which  to  buy  five  cows  and  a  bull. 


35 

Fifth  Year. — The  returns  from  alfalfa  may  be  reduced  to  $600, 
while  the  other  returns  may  be  increased  to  $2500,  making  a  total  of 
$3100.  Allowing  again  for  an  increase  in  running  expenses,  the 
following  may  result : 

Eunning  expenses $1,400.00 

Family  expenses  700.00 

Interest 300.00 

Total   $2,400.00 

The  balance  will  thus  be  $700,  with  which  seven  cows  may  be  purchased. 
Sixth  Year. — Assuming  a  reduction  of  alfalfa  to  $300  and  increase 
in  milk  and  meat  to  $3300,  the  income  the  sixth  year  would  be  $3600. 
The  outlay  may  be  assumed  as  follows : 

Running  expenses $1,600.00 

Family  expenses  700.00 

Interest 300.00 

Total   $2,600.00 

This  leaves  a  balance  of  $1000,  with  which  eight  cows  and  a  bull  may 
be  purchased. 

Seventh  Year. — There  will  now  be  on  hand  forty  cows,  which  will 
stock  the  sixty  acres  fully,  so  that  the  only  return  will  be  from  the 
sale  of  butter  fat  and  live  stock.  During  the  seventh  year,  under  this 
plan,  the  owner  should  receive  an  income  of  $4000  and  may  estimate 
his  running  expenses  at  $2000,  leaving  $2000  to  be  divided  among 
living  expenses,  interest,  and  reduction  of  debt.  Assuming  living 
expenses  to  have  been  $700,  there  would  be  left  $1300  for  interest  and 
reduction  of  debt.  At  the  end  of  the  seventh  year,  therefore,  this 
man 's  account  would  stand  as  follows : 

Property,  worth  $16,000.00 

Cash  on  hand  1,300.00 

$17,300.00 

Original  investment   $5,000.00 

Debt    5,000.00 

Interest  due  300.00 

10,300.00 

Balance  $7,000.00 

The  net  anual  gain,  therefore,  over  living  expenses  has  been  $1000. 
Most  farming  operations  are  not  so  simple  as  this  illustration,  because 
most  farming  is,  as  it  should  be,  more  diversified.  Neither  does  this 
illustration  provided  for  sickness,  lack  of  water,  or  other  accidents. 


36 

Further,  it  assumes  land  well  adapted  to  alfalfa  and  suitably  located 
with  reference  to  a  creamery.  On  the  other  hand,  the  increase  through 
the  saving  of  the  heifer  calves  has  been  ignored  in  order  to  balance 
possible  loss  of  cows.  This  estimate  also  assumes  that  the  owner  hires 
all  labor  except,  of  course,  his  own.  If  he  has  grown  or  growing 
children,  part  of  the  running  expenses  here  estimated  may  be  kept 
within  the  family. 

The  objection  may  be  raised  to  this  illustration  that  good  un- 
developed alfalfa  land  with  water  rights  cannot  be  purchased  for  $100 
per  acre.  The  reply  is  that  if  a  greater  price  is  paid  for  the  land, 
either  one  must  take  more  time  to  arrive  at  the  result  here  indicated, 
or  one  must  estimate  a  greater  annual  return.  It  is  believed  that 
greater  annual  returns  would  not  be  a  safe  guide  for  a  new  settler, 
although  greater  returns  are  often  obtained.  Another  objection  to  this 
plan,  and  a  legitimate  one  in  many  instances,  is  that  usually  a  mortgage 
for  $5000  cannot  run  without  some  payment  other  than  interest.  The 
plan  is  feasible  only  where  some  large  interest  is  subdividing  land  and 
is  willing  to  make  this  concession.  Otherwise,  one  must  take  more 
time  to  pay  off  the  debt,  or  have  more  capital  at  the  beginning.* 

It  has  been  previously  pointed  out  that  in  certain  sections  of 
California  a  one  family  dairy  farm  is  about  thirty  acres.  Possibly 
the  larger  number  of  dairy  farms  do  not  exceed  forty  acres.  A  person 
with  only  $5000  might,  therefore,  find  it  desirable  to  buy  a  tract  of 
thirty  or  forty  acres.  After  having  developed  this  area,  he  may  add 
to  it  or  he  may  dispose  of  it  and  buy  a  larger  tract. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  the  plan  here  outlined,  or 
any  similar  farming  enterprise,  can  be  successfully  executed  only  by 
a  person  who  has  a  knowledge  of  the  business.  Persons  with  no 
knowledge  of  farming  or  the  special  business  of  dairying  will  only 
in  rare  instances  succeed,  and  then  only  because  they  feel  a  call  for 
the  life  which  it  entails. 

The  above  discussion  was  submitted  to  Gordon  H.  True,  Professor 
of  Animal  Husbandry,  who  commented  upon  it  as  follows : 

"I  am  not  familiar  with  the  prices  of  land  that  is  being  offered  for  sale  in 
the  state,  but  knowing  that  practically  all  the  land  in  this  vicinity  is  held  at 
$300  per  acre  without  water  rights,  one  is  led  to  wonder  where  land  may  be 
purchased  for  $100  per  acre  with  water  rights.  .  .  .f 

"It  seems  to  me  that  your  estimate  of  $1000  for  teams,  machinery  and  tools 
is  rather  low.     I  believe   that  such   horses  as   one   should   have   for  this  work 


*  In  Europe,  land  mortgages  under  the  rural  credit  system  generally  run  from  thirty  to 
sixty  years.  It  seems  to  be  the  consensus  of  opinion  that  if  a  rural  credit  system  were 
established  in  the  United  States,  land  mortgages  should  be  permitted  to  run  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  years. 

t  For  further  discussion  of  land  values  see  page  43. 


37 

would  cost  at  least  $200  per  head.  It  also  seems  that  an  allowance  of  $500  for 
living  expenses  for  family  is  low.  .  .  .  Neither  can  I  see  where  the  $300  cash 
income  could  be  expected  the  first  year.  It  seems  to  me  that  one  man  working 
alone  would  be  doing  exceedingly  well  to  get  anything  like  fifteen  acres  of 
alfalfa  during  the  first  year  and  that  from  this  he  could  hardly  expect  to  grow 
enough  to  furnish  the  income  that  you  suggest. 

"Speaking  in  a  general  way  with  reference  to  the  amounts  allowed  for  the 
purchase  of  cows  and  bulls,  it  seems  to  me  that  you  are  not  allowing  enough 
for  the  character  of  animals  that  would  be  expected  to  produce  the  returns  on  which 
you  count.  Grade  Holsteins  have  been  sold  in  this  state  for  over  $100  per  head,  and 
dairymen  find  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  secure  good  dairy  cows  at  any  price  at 
the  present  time.  While  I  have  sold  registered  bulls  at  the  price  your  beginner 
could  afford  to  pay,  and  have  seen  others  offered  for  sale,  the  buyer  would  need 
some  good  advice  in  order  to  be  able  to  make  such  purchases  by  mail,  and  he 
could  not  afford  to  travel  in  search  of  stock. 

"The  returns  that  you  have  estimated,  assume,  it  seems  to  me,  a  character 
of  land  that  may  properly  be  called  'Alfalfa  land,'  much  better  in  character 
than  much  of  that  offered  by  dealers  as  suitable  for  growing  this  crop." 


THE  RENTER  AND  HIS  OPPORTUNITIES* 

Various  systems  of  renting  land  are  in  vogue  in  this  state.  One 
thing  must  be  kept  in  mind,  namely,  that  a  stranger  finds  it  difficult 
to  secure  a  desirable  piece  of  property  at  anywhere  near  a  reasonable 
rental.  Most  of  the  tenants  in  California  are  men  who  have  either 
worked  for  the  landowner  and  have  afterwards  assumed  charge  of 
his  property  for  him,  or  have  successfully  worked  land  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood.  The  land  owner  is  thus  well  acquainted  with 
the  tenant.  In  the  irrigated  section  of  the  state  it  is  not  uncommon  for 
a  young  man  who  shows  himself  especially  industrious  in  caring  for 
dairy  stock  to  be  offered  a  proposition  by  the  owner,  who  in  the  hot 
summer  months  may  determine  that  he  can  leave  his  ranch  in  the 
hands  of  the  hired  man  by  making  him  a  share  participator,  turning 
over  his  entire  ranch  equipment,  livestock,  etc.  The  man  may  agree 
to  pay  a  cash  rental  of  so  much  per  acre  and  to  deliver  to  the  owner 
at  the  expiration  of  his  lease  as  many  cattle  as  are  received  and  one- 
half  of  all  the  offspring.  He  also  agrees  to  pay  the  water  rentals  and 
to  keep  the  place  in  good  condition.  Sometimes  this  rental  is  put 
aside  and  a  man  will  agree  to  rent  his  place  with  stock  on  condition 
that  the  renter  deliver  to  him  one-half  of  the  monthly  cream  check 
and  one-half  of  the  sale  of  all  farm  products  and  one-half  of  the 
offspring  that  remain  on  the  place  over  and  above  the  number  of 
animals  that  were  there  when  the  man  took  charge. 


By  David  N.  Morgan,   Assistant  to  the  Director. 


38 

In  the  irrigated  section  where  grain  is  raised,  it  is  customary  for 
the  owner  of  the  land  to  pay  all  water  rentals  and  furnish  the  seed; 
the  renter  furnishes  the  livestock  and  puts  in  the  grain  at  his  own 
expense.  They  share  the  cost  of  harvesting  and  divide  the  produce 
equally.  In  orchards,  it  is  a  little  different,  the  owner  usually  requir- 
ing that  the  lessee  shall  pay  the  expenses  of  cultivating  and  handling 
the  crop,  and  delivering  to  the  owner  a  percentage  of  the  gross  returns. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  discussion,  assume  that  a  man  has  moved 
into  a  dairy  region  with  his  family  and  has  worked  for  a  leading 
dairyman  in  that  section.  The  leading  dairyman  discovers  in  this  man 
unusual  ability.  He  has  a  dairy  of  thirty  cows  and  all  the  necessary 
implements  and  live  stock  for  carrying  on  his  business.  He  agrees  to 
pay  for  the  water  that  is  used  and  also  to  pay  the  taxes,  insurance,  etc. 
The  renter  agrees  to  take  care  of  the  stock  and  furnish  at  the  end 
of  his  period  one-half  of  all  stock  that  has  been  raised  on  the  farm ; 
also  to  leave  on  the  place  as  much  hay  as  there  was  when  he  went 
there,  and  to  keep  everything  in  good  shape.  As  he  has  a  family  of 
several  children,  it  is  possible  for  him  to  conduct  this  ranch  without 
hiring  additional  help.  He  therefore  agrees  to  pay  one-half  of  his 
monthly  cream  check  and  one-half  received  from  the  sale  of  all  produce. 

In  addition  to  the  dairy  cattle  on  this  farm  there  are  also  ten 
yearling  heifers,  four  mares  and  six  brood  sows.  The  place  is  leased 
on  June  1st.  Thirty  cows  produce  twenty-five  pounds  of  butter  fat 
daily,  and  at  $0.25  per  pound,  the  prevailing  price  during  the  month 
of  June,  the  dairy  will  produce  $187.50  for  the  month.  Six  skim  milk 
hogs  are  sold  for  $72.  The  gross  income  then  is  $259.50.  One-half 
to  the  owner  leaves  $129.75  for  the  lessee's  income.  Of  this  sum  $45 
was  paid  to  a  hired  man  who  worked  in  the  hay  field.  The  family 
expenses  were  $50,  leaving  a  balance  of  $30. 

Feed  conditions  in  the  irrigated  valleys  make  it  possible  for  cows 
to  freshen  in  early  fall.  This  is  desirable  owing  to  increased  prices. 
Cooler  weather  also  makes  dairying  easier. 

In  July,  August,  and  September  the  butter  fat  averaged  $0.30  per 
pound,  or  $37.50  per  month  more  than  in  June.  The  expenses  being 
the  same,  the  net  profit  was  $48  for  each  of  these  three  months.  The 
hired  man  was  allowed  to  go  at  the  end  of  the  haying  season,  October 
1st,  During  October,  November,  and  December,  there  was  produced 
a  cream  check  of  $300  per  month.  As  the  family  did  all  the  work 
and  assuming  that  their  expenses  had  been  about  the  same,  there 
should  be  in  the  bank  to  the  credit  of  the  family  on  January  1,  about 
$500,  and  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  $1000.  In  addition  to  this  the 
renter  should  have  young  stock  to  the  amount  of  several   hundred 


39 

dollars  on  the  ranch.  At  this  rate  in  three  years  time  the  lessee  is 
in  a  position  to  purchase  all  livestock  and  enter  into  a  lease  with  the 
owner  on  terms  of  cash  rental  for  the  land  and  improvements,  or  he 
may  buy  some  livestock  elsewhere  and  with  his  share  of  the  offspring 
rent  a  different  place  for  which  he  pays  a  cash  rental.  Assuming 
that  his  gross  income  for  the  next  three  years  would  average  $3000 
per  year  and  living  expenses  will  take  one-half  the  sum,  the  renter 
should  have  $4000  in  cash  and  about  $5000  worth  of  livestock  and 
implements.  He  will  then  be  in  a  position  to  buy  a  place  of  his  own, 
paying  half  of  the  purchase  price  in  cash  and  borrowing  some  addi- 
tional capital  on  his  livestock  if  necessary  to  make  additional  improve- 
ments. In  four  years  more  the  man  should  have  a  comfortable  home 
entirely  paid  for,  a  steady  income,  and  be  worth  more  than  $15,000. 
In  twelve  years  from  the  date  of  first  locating  in  the  favored  dairy 
region,  this  man  with  the  help  of  his  growing  family,  has  secured  a 
competence  and  provided  for  the  future.  It  is  recognized  that  only 
men  of  more  than  ordinary  perseverance  are  willing  to  make  necessary 
sacrifices  the  first  few  years  in  familiarizing  themselves  with  the  region 
and  methods  used ;  also,  that  only  an  extraordinary  man  would  attract 
the  attention  of  a  rancher  unless  he  had  been  actually  employed  by 
him.  Owners  are  averse  to  renting  on  such  a  basis  to  men  they  do 
not  know  favorably,  for  it  would  be  too  easy  for  them  to  lose  heavily 
by  mismanagement,  and  the  average  renter  when  he  starts  work  does 
not  possess  much  of  value  that  can  be  held  for  security  guaranteeing 
fulfillment  of  his  part  of  the  lease.  However,  it  is  not  impossible  for 
a  man  with  more  than  the  average  ability,  with  a  family,  and  with 
good  health  to  do  just  as  well  as  the  renter  discussed  above. 


40 


CALIFORNIA  CROPS 


Members  of  the  staff  have  prepared  articles  on  the  growing  of 
certain  standard  crops  in  California.  The  plan  has  been  to  give  that 
information  which  an  eastern  man  with  an  actual  knowledge  of  farm- 
ing or  fruit  raising  would  most  need  to  know.  It  is  not  intended  as 
full  information  for  a  beginner.  The  following  are  points  which  each 
specialist  had  in  mind  while  preparing  the  articles : 

Discuss  the  industry  as  it  exists — not  as  it  did  exist  in  the  past,  nor  as  it 
may  exist  in  the  future.    Assume  the  settler  has  decided  to  grow  the  crop. 

Say  nothing  of  its  importance  except  as  an  aid  to  finding  proper  location. 
State  main  objections  to  the  crop  as  an  industry. 

'Regions. — Give  important  centers  of  industry.  Name  town  or  towns  it  would 
be  wise  to  visit  in  order  to  see  the  industry  to  best  advantage.  Give  best 
climatic  and  soil  conditions,  especially  things  to  avoid. 

Methods. — State  the  methods  that  are  actually  in  vogue,  not  merely  methods 
that  are  recommended  as  ideal  or  desirable. 

Call  particular  attention  to  methods  with  which  strangers  will  most  likely 
be  unfamiliar. 

Tell  things  to  be  guarded  against. 

Size  of  farms  growing  this  crop. 

Mention  location  of  lands  yet  available  for  development. 

Give  ordinary  commercial  value  of  developed  and  undeveloped  lands. 

State  methods  of  renting  and  give  rental  values. 

Give  kinds  of  labor  and  ruling  prices. 

Discuss  methods  of  marketing. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  all  the  crops  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia, but  only  a  few  of  those  most  typical  and  representative  of 
the  agriculture  of  the  state.  Even  according  to  this  rule  there  are 
important  omissions. 


The  list  of  crops  discussed  follows 


Alfalfa 

Figs 

Almonds 

Grapes 

Barley 

Olives 

Beans 

Onions 

Citrus  Fruits 

Pears 

Cotton 

Prunes 
Potatoes 

Semi-tropical  Fruits 
Sugar  Beets 
Walnuts 


41 


THE  ALMOND 
By  E.  H.  Taylor,  Instructor  in  Pomology 

The  almond  can  be  grown  only  in  limited  areas,  owing  to  its  susceptibility 
to  frost.  This  is  not  due,  as  often  supposed,  to  any  greater  tenderness  of  the 
blossoms  or  young  fruit,  but  to  the  fact  that  this  tree  is  the  earliest  of  all  our 
tree  fruits  to  bloom  in  the  spring,  thus  rendering  it  liable  to  more  severe  frosts 
than  fruits  which  bloom  later. 

The  localities  where  the  almond  succeeds  best  are  where  there  are  no  late 
spring  frosts.  Low  lands  should  be  avoided  because  of  the  settling  of  cold  air 
in  these  spots,  causing  later  and  more  severe  frosts  than  in  adjacent  higher 
land.  Rolling  hills  just  back  from  the  lower  levels  of  our  large  interior  valleys 
and  the  alluvial  fans  projecting  out  from  the  hills,  furnish  the  larger  portions 
of  our  safe  almond  localities.  Where  large  streams  have  built  up  the  general 
level  along  their  banks  far  out  into  the  main  valleys,  freedom  from  frosts  is 
again  marked. 

The  soil  best  suited  to  the  almond  is  a  deep  loam  which  is  free  from  hard- 
pan,  or  gravelly  substrata,  and  at  all  times  well  drained.  The  almond  will  not 
endure  standing  water  around  its  roots  for  any  length  of  time  and  especially 
during  its  long  growing  season.  The  lighter  soils,  therefore,  are  the  ones  which 
should  be  sought.  Too  light  a  soil  is  equally  undesirable,  in  being  unable  to 
retain  a  sufficiently  uniform  moisture  content. 

Large  quantities  of  almonds  are  at  present  grown  along  the  banks  of  Putah 
Creek  between  Davis  and  Winters,  along  Cache  Creek  near  Esparto,  and  on 
higher  up  the  creek  throughout  the  length  of  Capay  Valley,  along  the  rolling 
hills  around  Arbuckle,  on  the  higher  lands  around  Chico  and  Gridley,  on  the 
higher  lands  near  the  foot  of  the  Marysville  Buttes,  in  Contra  Costa  County 
(notably  at  Oakley),  near  Oakdale,  near  Acampo  and  Lodi,  and  in  Southern 
California,  notably  at  Banning,  in  Riverside  County. 

In  the  most  favorable  soils  the  almond  is  grown  on  almond  root.  Where 
the  soil  is  inclined  to  be  more  gravelly  and  too  well  drained,  and  irrigation 
water  is  available,  the  peach  root  is  used,  while  in  heavy  soils  the  Myrobalan 
root  is  used.  Plantings  on  heavy  soils  do  not  ordinarily  do  well  and  should  be 
very  sparingly  practiced,  and  then  only  when  one  understands  just  what  he  is 
doing. 

After  planting,  the  tree  is  generally  headed  to  eighteen  inches  from  the 
ground  and  a  head  formed.  In  subsequent  years  the  trees  are  headed  back  from 
two  to  four  years,  and  after  that  pruning  is  limited  to  thinning  out  too  thick 
and  interfering  branches  and  dead  wood.  Keep  the  center  of  the  tree  rather 
open  to  encourage  fruiting  well  down  to  the  center  of  tree. 

The  trees  should  come  into  profitable  bearing  about  the  sixth  year. 

Harvesting,  which  commences  a  little  before  the  middle  of  August,  and 
continues  in  the  various  varieties  until  the  middle  of  September,  is  done  by 
knocking  with  long  poles  on  to  sheets  spread  under  the  trees.  From  here  the 
nuts  go  to  the  huller,  where  they  are  separated  from  the  hulls,  then  dried, 
bleached  and  sacked  for  shipment. 

Late  ripening  varieties  will  not  do  in  regions  subject  to  early  rains  or  where 
fogs  are  prevalent,  as  the  shells  are  darkened  too  much. 

The  most  important  pest  of  the  almond  is  the  Red  Spider. 


42 

Root  knot  and  oak  fungus  (Armillaria)  must  also  be  guarded  against  when 
the  trees  are  being  planted. 

The  almond  is  grown  on  farms  ranging  from  an  acre  or  two  up  to  one 
hundred  or  more  acres.     The  average  orchard  is  not  over  thirty  acres. 

In  all  of  the  above  mentioned  districts  there  are  lands  still  available  for 
development,  but  care  must  be  exercised  to  determine  whether  or  not  such 
delayed  development  is  due  to  frequent  late  spring  frosts  occurring  there. 

Good  unimproved  almond  land  may  be  purchased  at  from  $185  to  $350  per 
acre.     Land  with  trees  in  bearing  runs  from  $250  to  $600  per  acre  and  over. 

Although  there  are  independent  buyers,  the  marketing  of  this  crop  is  done 
largely  through  the  California  Almond  Growers'  Exchange,  with  offices  in 
Sacramento. 


ALFALFA  CULTURE 
By  B.  A.  Madson,  Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy 

The  climatic  and  soil  conditions  of  the  state  are  eminently  suited  to  the 
growth  of  alfalfa.  AVhile  these  two  factors  have  doubtless  played  an  important 
part  in  centralizing  the  industry  in  certain  sections  of  the  state,  water  has  in 
all  probability  been  the  controlling  factor.  Modesto,  Turlock,  Merced,  and 
Fresno  are  especially  noted  as  centers  of  alfalfa  production,  and  here  also  we 
find  irrigation  highly  developed.  Within  the  past  few  years  the  Imperial  Valley 
with  its  abundant  water  supply  has  become  an  extensive  producer  of  alfalfa. 

With  regard  to  soil  requirements,  while  alfalfa  is  not  fastidious,  there  are 
certain  conditions  which  are  unfavorable  to  its  growth.  It  thrives  best  on  a 
deep,  fertile,  well-drained  loam,  of  uniform  character  and  of  high  lime  content. 
Soils  which  possess  an  impervious  stratum  or  hardpan  near  the  surface  or  which 
have  a  high  water  table,  should  be  avoided.  The  alfalfa  plant  is  a  gross  feeder, 
possessing  an  extensive  root  system,  and  any  soil  condition  which  interferes 
with  its  free  development  will  materially  check  its  growth.  Acidity  or  excessive 
alkalinity  are  of  course  always  objectionable.  The  former  condition  occurs 
only  to  a  limited  extent  in  this  state,  but  the  latter  is  quite  prevalent  and  is 
frequently  associated  with  hardpan. 

While  it  is  true  that  in  a  few  sections  alfalfa  is  successfully  grown  with 
natural  sub-irrigation,  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  is  seldom  attained  unless 
the  farmer  has  at  his  command  an  adequate  supply  of  irrigation  water,  obtained 
either  from  a  ditch  or  from  wells. 

The  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  the  field  for  alfalfa  is  to  level  and 
check  for  irrigation.  This  work  is  usually  done  by  contract,  either  in  the 
summer  or  early  fall,  while  the  soil  is  dry.  The  average  contract  price  for 
grading  and  checking  land  is  about  $18  per  acre.  The  system  of  checks  to  be 
used,  must  be  governed  by  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  contour  of  the  field 
and  the  volume  of  water  available.  If  water  can  be  obtained  in  the  late 
summer  or  early  in  the  fall,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  irrigate  the  land,  pre- 
pare the  seed  bed,  with  a  disk  and  harrow  as  soon  as  possible  after  irrigation, 
and  then  seed  the  alfalfa.  If  the  crop  can  be  put  in  by  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember, it  will  usually  attain  sufficient  growth  before  winter  to  withstand  the 
frosts.  More  often,  however,  after  the  land  is  checked  it  is  allowed  to  lie 
idle  until  spring,  when  the  seed  bed  is  prepared,  and  the  alfalfa  seeded  at  the 
rate  of  twenty  pounds  per  acre. 


43 

Upon  a  well  established  alfalfa  field,  five  to  seven  cuttings  are  obtained  per 
season.  The  crop  is  cut  when  one-tenth  in  bloom  or  when  new  shoots  appear  at 
the  crown. 

The  alfalfa  ranches  of  California  are  much  smaller  than  the  grain  ranches, 
varying  in  size  from  forty  to  fifty  acres  to  several  hundred  acres.  In  order 
to  handle  the  crop  successfully  it  requires  about  two  men  and  two  teams  to 
every  forty  acres,  although  upon  the  larger  fields,  with  the  use  of  larger 
implements  this  proportion  may  be  somewhat  reduced. 

Under  normal  conditions  four  to  six  tons  of  hay  per  acre  may  be  considered 
a  fair  yield,  though  where  conditions  are  especially  favorable  and  when  the 
best  culture  methods  are  practiced,  eight  to  ten  tons  are  not  impossible. 

The  cost  of  preparing  the  seedbed  and  seeding  the  crop,  together  with  the 
cost  of  seed,  is  about  $7.50  per  acre. 

It  is  only  in  case  of  large  tracts,  that  alfalfa  culture  is  carried  on  as  an 
independent  enterprise.  The  smaller  tracts  more  often  constitute  a  part  of 
some  more  diversified  type  of  farming.  In  either  case,  alfalfa  production  is 
both  a  desirable  and  profitable  business,  giving  good  returns  and  providing 
employment  of  men  and  teams  during  a  large  portion  of  the  year.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  fact  that  it  remains  permanent  for  so  long  a  period  of  time, 
eliminates  the  possibility  of  much  crop  rotation,  a  condition  which  is  never 
conducive  to  the  best  type  of  agriculture. 

The  rental  price  of  alfalfa  land  varies  from  $12  to  $15  per  acre,  depending 
upon  the  locality.  In  a  few  cases  .where  intensive  dairying  is  practiced  and 
the  alfalfa  hay  is  fed  on  the  ranch,  $20  an  acre  is  secured.  Renting  on  shares 
is  not  as  common  as  with  grain  land,  though  it  is  practiced  to  some  extent,  the 
owner  receiving  one-third  of  the  crop  and  in  nearly  all  cases  supplying  the 
water. 

Developed  alfalfa  land  favorably  located  and  in  good  condition  commands 
a  price  of  from  $250  to  $300  or  more  per  acre.  There  is,  however,  still  consider- 
able undeveloped  land  in  many  of  the  alfalfa  growing  sections  of  the  state, 
which  can  be  purchased  for  $150  to  $200.  Higher  prices  should  not  be  paid 
unless  it  has  been  proved  that  the  conditions  are  especially  well  adapted  to  the 
production  of  the  crop.  There  are  suitable  areas  for  growing  alfalfa,  which  will 
in  all  probability  be  eventually  used  for  that  purpose,  though  not  at  present 
considered  within  the  alfalfa  growing  sections,  which  can  be  purchased  for 
$100  per  acre  or  less. 


BARLEY  PRODUCTION 
By  B.  A.  Madson,  Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy 

Barley  is  grown  quite  generally  throughout  California,  but  its  production, 
like  the  production  of  other  cereal  crops,  is  confined  to  the  sections  of  the  state 
where  dry-farming  must  be  practiced.  It  is  only  in  rare  instances  that  the 
crop  is  irrigated,  because  where  irrigation  can  be  developed  the  land  becomes 
too  valuable  to  be  used  for  barley. 

The  ability  of  barley  to  grow  under  conditions  of  limited  rainfall  has 
doubtless  played  an  important  part  in  concentrating  the  industry  in  those 
sections  of  the  state  where  the  annual  precipitation  is  low.  Thus  we  find  the 
greatest  production   in   the   San   Joaquin   Valley,   especially  in   the   vicinity   of 


44 

Stockton,  Merced,  and  Madera.     It  is  also  grown   extensively  near   Colusa  in 
the  Sacramento  Valley  and  near  Gonzales,  Monterey  County,  on  the  coast. 

Barley  seems  to  thrive  better  in  a  warm  dry  climate  than  in  a  cool,  moist 
climate,  and  fortunately  the  former  condition  prevails  quite  generally  in  this 
state.  With  regard  to  soil  requirements,  barley  is  perhaps  more  exacting  than 
any  other  crop.  Briefly  stated,  it  seems  to  thrive  best  on  a  rich,  fertile  loam, 
well  drained  and  rather  light  in  character.  Soils  that  are  low  in  fertility, 
extremely  light  or  extremely  heavy,  or  soils  that  are  cold  and  damp  for  a  long 
period  during  the  winter  should  be  avoided  for  this  crop.  The  barley  plant 
has  a  rather  tender  root  system  and  any  adverse  soil  condition  is  apt  to  produce 
a  marked  injurious  effect. 

.  The  dominant  feature  which  characterizes  barley  culture  in  this  state  at  the 
present  time  is  mass  production  rather  than  maximum  production  per  unit  area. 
The  farms  upon  which  grain  plays  an  important  part  are  usually  large,  varying 
from  two  hundred  acres  to  one  or  two  thousand  acres  or  more  in  size.  In 
order  to  handle  such  immense  areas  the  method  and  implements  used  must 
necessarily  be  such  as  will  enable  the  farmer  to  cover  the  most  ground  in  the 
shortest  possible  time. 

In  the  fall  or  early  winter  as  soon  as  sufficient  rain  has  fallen  to  moisten 
the  soil,  the  fields  are  plowed  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  inches,  using  large 
gang  plows  in  order  to  hasten  the  work.  On  the  smaller  farms  mules  are  used 
as  motive  power,  while  on  the  larger  ranches  tractors  are  more  common.  After 
the  field  has  been  plowed  it  is  disked,  seeded  broadcast,  and  harrowed,  which 
completes  the  operation  of  putting  in  the  crop.  Upon  the  larger  ranches,  with 
the  use  of  a  tractor  and  the  proper  combination  of  machinery,  the  work  of 
plowing,  disking,  seeding,  and  harrowing  is  often  done  at  a  single  operation, 
which  greatly  reduces  the  cost  per  unit  area.  Four  or  five  men  with  a  single 
outfit  can  handle  from  three  to  five  hundred  acres  or  more,  depending  upon  the 
season. 

The  usual  practice  is  to  harvest  the  crop  with  a  combined  harvester,  which 
cuts,  threshes,  and  sacks  the  grain,  ready  for  market,  at  a  single  operation. 
Five  or  six  men  are  required  to  run  the  outfit,  and  can  cover  from  twenty-five 
to  forty  acres  per  day.  The  combined  harvester  has  greatly  reduced  the  cost 
of  handling  the  grain  crop,  but  it  is  very  wasteful  of  grain  and  its  continued 
use  renders  the  fields  extremely  foul. 

In  a  few  instances  on  the  smaller  farms  summer  fallowing  for  barley  is 
sometimes  practiced.  The  fields  are  plowed  in  the  fall  and  allowed  to  lie  idle 
for  a  year,  with  an  occasional  harrowing  to  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds  and 
also  to  prevent  the  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation. 

Under  conditions  of  continuous  culture,  fifteen  sacks  is  considered  a  fair 
yield.  In  rare  cases  twenty  sacks  are  obtained,  but  more  often  the  farmer 
is  content  with  ten  or  twelve.  In  the  fallow  land  thirty  sacks  per  acre  is 
considered  good. 

The  cost  of  plowing,  disking,  seeding,  and  harrowing,  together  with  the  cost 
of  the  seed,  is  about  $5  per  acre.  The  cost  of  harvesting  a  fifteen-sack  crop 
of  barley,  including  sacks,  is  about  $3.50  per  acre.  To  this  must  be  added  an 
additional  cost  of  75  cents  for  marketing,  making  the  total  cost  of  producing 
the  crop  $9.25  per  acre.  The  average  price  of  barley  is  about  $1.10  per  hundred, 
giving  a  gross  return  of  $16.50.  After  subtracting  the  cost  of  production 
there  remains  a  net  return  of  $7.25,  which  must  cover  taxes,  depreciation  on 


45 

equipment,  and  interest  on  investment.  The  cost  of  producing  the  thirty-sack 
crop  on  the  fallowed  land  is  about  three-fourths  the  cost  of  producing  two 
fifteen-sack  crops,  so  that  the  net  returns  will  be  somewhat  greater. 

With  methods  of  handling  at  present  in  vogue,  barley  farming,  in  order  to 
be  profitable  must  be  conducted  on  relatively  low-priced  land.  Profitable 
returns  cannot  be  obtained  on  land  which  exceeds  $75  to  $85  per  acre  in  value 
except  when  grown  in  rotation  with  other  crops. 

The  usual  basis  for  renting  grain  lands  is  on  shares,  the  owner  requiring 
one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  crop.  This  means  that  normally  eight  to  ten 
sacks  must  cover  the  cost  of  production  and  besides  leave  something  to  the 
farmer  for  his  trouble. 

Grain  farming  has  some  advantages  and  some  distinct  disadvantages.  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  a  type  of  farming  which  requires  a  minimum  of  labor  and  only 
a  comparatively  small  outlay  for  equipment;  the  only  time  help  is  required  is 
during  seeding  and  harvesting.  The  labor  available  is  largely  of  the  transient 
type,  which  can  be  obtained  for  from  $2.25  to  $3  per  day.  On  the  other  hand, 
with  grain  as  the  dominant  feature,  the  equipment  must  necessarily  lie  idle 
the  greater  portion  of  the  year,  so  that  its  total  cost  must  be  charged  against 
the  grain  crop.  Then,  too,  constant  cropping  to  grain  is  not  a  commendable 
practice,  inasmuch  as  the  continuous  shallow  cultivation  greatly  impairs  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil,  so  that  the  farmer  must  continually  put  forth 
greater  effort  to  maintain  his  yields.  It  is  the  type  of  farming,  however, 
which  is,  as  a  rule,  practiced  on  new  land,  as  it  requires  but  little  capital  at 
the  start. 

There  is  still  considerable  undeveloped  land  suitable  for  this  type  of  farming 
available  in  the  foothill  regions  of  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin  valleys, 
as  well  as  in  some  of  the  smaller  and  more  isolated  valleys  of  the  state, 
which  can  be  purchased  for  $40  to  $60  per  acre.  In  the  developed  sections, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  but  little  land  that  can  be  purcnased  for  less  than 
$100  an  acre. 


BEAN  CULTURE 
By  John  W.  Gilmore,  Professor  of  Agronomy 

Bean  culture  in  California  may  be  considered  under  two  heads,  namely,  field 
bean  culture  and  Lima  bean  culture.  While  the  soils  and  culture  methods  for 
these  two  types  of  beans  are  similar,  they  differ  materially  in  respect  to  their 
requirements  for  temperature  and  moisture,  including  humidity. 

Lima  Beans. — Mainly  because  of  this  difference  the  Lima  bean  is  most 
extensively  produced  in  the  counties  along  the  coast,  including  San  Diego, 
Orange,  Los  Angeles,  Ventura,  Santa  Barbara,  and  San  Luis  Obispo.  In  these 
counties  the  valley  soils  are  deep  and  strong,  and  the  peculiar  requisite  moisture 
conditions  are  afforded  by  frequent  fogs  from  the  ocean.  The  summer  temper- 
ature in  these  bean  sections  is  tempered  especially  in  respect  to  its  uniformity 
by  ocean  winds.  This  industry  may  be  most  profitably  investigated  in  the 
vicinity  of  Ventura,  San  Luis  Obispo,  Santa  Barbara,  Los  Angeles,  and  Oxnard. 
In  California  the  climatic  conditions  are  more  important  as  a  limiting  factor 
in  the  production  of  Lima  beans  than  the  soil,  except  in  cases  where  the  soil 
is  unsuitable  because  of  an  alkali  or  an  acid  condition. 


46 

Culture  Methods. — The  bean  is  a  relatively  deep  rooted  plant,  hence  deep 
preparation  of  the  soil  is  an  important  factor  in  the  production  of  the  crop. 
The  land  is  plowed  from  six  to  eight  or  more  inches  deep  as  early  in  the 
autumn  as  is  rendered  possible  by  the  rains.  The  land  is  left  with  rough, 
untreated  surface  during  the  winter  months  in  order  to  impound  as  much  of 
the  winter  rains  as  possible.  During  February  and  March,  when  most  of  the 
rains  are  over,  the  surface  is  worked  a  number  of  times  to  smooth  it  down, 
to  kill  early  germinating  weeds  and  to  prepare  the  surface  for  the  conservation 
of  the  stored  moisture  and  for  the  planting  of  the  seed.  The  work  that  has 
been  expended  upon  the  land  up  to  this  time  comprises  the  major  portion  of 
the  culture  that  the  crop  will  receive,  and  this  is  very  important,  for  thorough 
preparation  in  bean  culture  is  more  than  half  the  labor  insuring  a  crop.  In 
Lima  bean  culture  this  thorough  preparation  is  all  the  more  necessary  because 
little  or  no  rain  falls  in  the  regions  mentioned  between  the  planting  and  the 
harvesting  of  the  crop. 

Planting  is  usually  best  accomplished  during  the  earlier  days  of  May.  By 
this  time  the  soil  has  become  warm  and  the  free  water  has  distributed  itself 
through  the  soil.  If  beans  are  planted  in  cold,  wet  soil  they  will  rot,  or  at 
best  the  plants  will  be  non-uniform  and  retarded  in  their  growth.  From  forty 
to  sixty  pounds  of  seed  are  used  per  acre,  according  to  the  size  (the  variety) 
of  the  seed  and  the  physical  condition  and  the  strength  of  the  soil.  With 
optimum  physical  condition  and  moisture  content,  less  seed  is  required,  for 
the  fewer  plants  will  cover  the  ground  better  and  yield  more.  The  rows  are 
arranged  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches  apart  and  the  beans  are  planted  and 
thinned  so  as  to  stand  eight  to  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  row.  On  the  stronger 
and  moister  soils  the  wider  distances  are  given.  Two  inches  is  about  the 
right  depth  of  planting. 

During  the  growing  season  the  crop  is  given  several  shallow  cultivations 
until  the  vines  cover  the  ground,  and  during  this  period  also  one  or  two 
irrigations  are  given,  unless  through  excellent  preparation  of  the  soil  or 
abundant  winter  rains  the  growing  crop  does  not  need  the  moisture.  On 
account  of  the  absence  of  rainfall  during  the  growing  season  Lima  beans  in 
California  do  not  have  to  be  staked. 

Lima  beans  ripen  from  August  25th  to  September  25th.  When  the  pods 
have  matured  and  begun  to  turn  yellow,  the  vines  are  cut  just  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  soil  and  are  afterwards  thrown  into  small  piles  for  ripening  and 
curing.  In  cutting,  from  five  to  six  acres  per  day  is  considered  a  day's  work, 
while  in  piling  a  man  will  accomplish  from  three  to  four  acres. 

Threshing  is  usually  accomplished  by  itinerant  companies  putting  up  from 
1000  to  2500  sacks  per  day.  The  charge  is  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  cents 
per  sack,  according  to  location  or  accessibility. 

The  yield  of  Lima  beans  may  range  from  ten  to  twenty-five  sacks  (80  lbs. 
each)  per  acre.  The  average  is  about  fourteen  sacks.  The  farmer's  selling 
price  ranges  from  four  to  six  cents  per  pound.  The  cost  of  production  ranges 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-five  dollars  per  acre.  On  the  basis  of  net  returns 
Lima  bean  land  is  worth  from  $250  to  $500  per  acre. 

This  crop  is  produced  on  farms  of  all  sizes,  from  small  areas  of  five  and 
ten  acres  to  large  estates  operated  by  corporations.  The  implements  of  culture 
and  production  are  not  expensive.  When  land  is  rented  the  tenant  usually 
furnishes  everything  and  retains  two-thirds  of  the  crop. 


47 

Field  Beans. — What  has  been  said  regarding  the  soil  requirements  and  culture 
methods  of  Lima  beans  applies  also  to  field  beans.  The  principal  regions  for 
the  culture  of  these  beans,  however,  lie  within  the  Sacramento  and  upper  San 
Joaquin  valleys,  principally  in  the  counties  of  San  Joaquin,  Sacramento,  Sutter, 
Contra  Costa,  Solano,  Yolo,  and  Colusa.  Some  black  eye  and  pink  beans  are 
grown  in  Stanislaus  and  Merced  counties,  but  in  general  the  summers  in  these 
counties  are  too  warm  for  most  of  the  varieties. 

In  the  counties  mentioned  the  rainfall  and  temperature  vary  more  widely 
than  in  the  Lima  bean  regions,  consequently  one  must  exercise  a  stricter 
choice  of  localities  for  successful  bean  growing.  The  heavy  adobe  and  the 
light  sandy  soils  should  be  avoided,  not  alone  because  of  their  crop  producing 
power,  but  also  because  of  their  water-holding  capacity.  The  heavy  soils  do 
not  respond  to  the  operations  of  tillage  in  the  proper  manner,  often  being  too 
lumpy  and  hard,  and  the  lighter  soils  are  not  sufficiently  retentive  of  moisture. 

A  satisfactory  yield  of  field  beans  is  about  1400  pounds  per  acre,  though  on 
account  of  climate  and  soils  the  yield  varies  greatly,  2500  pounds  per  acre 
being  frequently  produced.  The  farm  price  varies  with  the  variety  from  three 
ce»"ts  to  eight  cents  per  pound. 

The  cost  of  production  of  field  beans  varies  more  widely  than  for  Lima 
beans,  mainly  owing  to  variation  in  soil  conditions.  The  most  usual  figure  is 
between  $15  and  $18  per  acre. 


CITRICULTURE 
By  J.  Eliot  Coit,  Professor  of  Citriculture 

There  are  about  180,000  acres  planted  to  citrus  fruits  in  California,  the 
proportion  of  lemons  to  oranges  being  as  1  to  5.  There  are  about  eight  thousand 
citrus  growers,  the  average  holding  being  therefore  about  twenty  acres.  The 
annual  shipments  are  now  about  40,000  cars  or  14,500,000  boxes,  being  approxi- 
mately one-sixth  of  the  world's  supply. 

Citrus  fruits  are  grown  in  favorable  localities  from  San  Diego  County  to 
Shasta  County.  The  localities  are  in  the  order  of  present  importance:  (1)  the 
area  enclosed  in  and  adjacent  to  a  triangle  drawn  through  Pasadena,  Redlands, 
and  Santa  Ana;  (2)  the  eastern  foothills  of  Tulare  County;  (3)  Ventura  and 
Santa  Barbara  counties;  (4)  San  Diego  County;  (5)  Butte  County.  There  are 
a  great  many  smaller  areas  scattered  through  the  state  which  are  well  suited 
to  citrus  fruits.  The  industry  is  older  in  Southern  California  and  there  the 
lands  and  water  have  been  further  developed  and  prices  of  land  and  water 
are  much  higher  than  in  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the  state.  The  cost 
of  land  varies  from  $150  to  $500  an  acre  and  water  rights  from  $75  to  $300 
or  more.  It  costs  to  establish  an  orchard  and  care  for  it  through  the  first  five 
years  from  $800  to  $1200  per  acre  in  Southern  California  and  from  $500  to 
$900  per  acre  in  other  parts  of  the  state. 

It  is  not  the  custom  to  rent  citrus  properties  in  California.  The  labor  in 
California  citrus  groves  is  done  principally  by  Americans,  although  a  good 
many  Mexicans,  Italians,  and  Orientals  are  employed.  Foremen  receive  from 
$50  to  $100  per  month,  teamsters  from  $50  to  $65,  irrigators  from  $2.00  to  $2.50 
per  day,  pruners  from  $2.00  to  $3.50  per  day,  picking  foremen  from  $2.25  to 


48 

$3.50,  pickers  from  $2  to  $2.50,  and  fumigators  from  25  to  50  cents  per  hour. 
Ordinary  labor  is  paid  $1.50  to  $2  per  day. 

Orange  trees  which  have  been  properly  grown  should  yield  350  to  400  packed 
boxes  or  a  car  per  acre  after  twelve  years  old.  Lemons  will  yield  about  one- 
third  to  one-half  more  tonnage  per  acre  than  oranges. 

About  60  per  cent  of  the  fruit  is  sold  through  a  very  well  organized  co- 
operative selling  agency  known  as  the  California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange. 
The  grower  buys  stock  in  proportion  to  his  acreage  in  a  local  packing-house 
which  is  owned  and  operated  by  an  association  of  growers.  Several  associations 
together  form  a  district  exchange  which  orders  cars,  ships  the  fruit,  and 
distributes  the  returns.  All  of  the  district  exchanges  belong  to  the  central 
exchange  which  furnishes  facilities  for  marketing  the  fruit  in  the  shape 
of  bonded  agents  working  under  salary  in  the  principal  markets.  The  central 
exchange  also  furnishes  daily  market  reports  and  other  information.  Grower- 
members  are  prohibited  from  selling  and  delivering  fruit  outside  of  the  associ- 
ation.    Growers  may  withdraw  from  the  association  at  the  end  of  any  year. 

There  are  about  forty  co-operative  marketing  associations  outside  of  the 
Exchange  and  a  number  of  independent  grower-shippers.  Very  little  fruit  is 
shipped  on  consignment. 

Some  persons  have  made  fortunes  in  citrus  fruit,  while  many  others  have 
lost  money.  Others  would  have  lost  money  had  it  not  been  for  the  timely 
advance  in  the  value  of  the  land  for  residence  or  other  purposes. 

Any  person,  however,  with  sufficient  capital,  a  reasonable  knowledge  of 
horticultural  operations,  and  ordinarily  good  business  judgment,  who  is  indus- 
trious and  persevering,  may  expect  to  make  a  good  profit  by  raising  citrus 
fruits,  provided  he  or  she  pays  attention  to  the  following  points: 

1.  Select  a  location  in  a  proved  citrus  district  reasonably  free  from  frosts 
and  winds  and  within  hauling  distance  of  a  packing-house. 

2.  Select  a  deep  soil  easy  to  work,  fertile,  well  drained,  and  drive  a  good 
bargain  for  it. 

3.  Be  sure  of  an  ample  supply  of  good  water  to  which  the  land  has  an 
inalienable  right.  For  full  bearing  trees  near  the  coast  on  a  retentive  soil 
about  1}4  miners'  inches  of  water  is  needed  for  ten  acres.  The  same  trees  in 
interior  valleys  and  especially  on  gravelly  soils  need  not  less  than  three  miners ' 
inches  to  ten  acres.  When  buying  a  young  grove  bear  in  mind  that  only  a 
small  amount  of  water  is  needed  for  small  trees  and  that  some  people  develop 
groves  with  insufficient  water  rights  with  the  intention  of  selling  to  an  inex- 
perienced person  at  the  critical  time.  Beware  of  a  citrus  development  based 
on  surplus  water. 

4.  Secure  good  strong  trees  free  from  scale  which  have  been  propagated 
from  carefully  selected  buds  of  standard  varieties.  The  standard  varieties  in 
California  are  few  in  number.  They  are:  Navel  and  Valencia  oranges,  Eureka 
and  Lisbon  lemons,  Marsh  seedless  pomelo,  and  Dancy  tangerine. 

5.  Plant  the  trees  properly,  using  great  care  not  to  let  the  sun  strike  the 
bare  roots.  Inexperienced  planters  should  purchase  balled  trees,  as  there  is  less 
danger  of  losing  them  during  transplantation. 

6.  Care  for  the  trees  personally  and  conscientiously  in  regard  to  cultivation, 
irrigation,  fertilization,  and  pruning. 

7.  Prevent  scale  insects  and  diseases  from  gaining  a  foothold.  Remember 
that  the  average  cost  of  fumigation  is  $30  per  acre  every  alternate  year,  and 


49 

this  is  6   per  cent   on   $500,   consequently   in   a   scale-infested   locality  land   is 
worth  less  for  citrus  production,  other  things  being  equal. 

8.  Join  a  local  marketing  association  and  co-operate  with  the  neighbors  in 
frost  fighting,  insect  and  disease  control,  and  in  other  ways  for  the  general  good 
of  the  neighborhood. 

9.  Write  freely  to  the  College  of  Agriculture  for  advice  and  enroll  for  the 
Correspondence  Course  on  Citrus  Fruits. 


COTTON  KAISING 
By  W.  E.  Packard,  Agronomist  in  charge  of  Imperial  Valley  Experiment  Farm 

Cotton  raising  is  at  present  confined  to  Imperial  County  and  a  small  acreage 
in  the  Palo  Verde  Valley  of  Eiverside  County.  El  Centro  and  Calexico  are  the 
chief  cotton  centers.  Cotton  can  be  raised  in  any  of  the  interior  valleys  of 
the  state  where  irrigation  water  is  to  be  had  and  where  there  is  assurance  of 
freedom  from  cold  coast  fogs,  but  it  should  not  be  planted  on  a  commercial 
scale  unless  cheap  experienced  labor  is  available  and  ginning  facilities  are 
secured. 

Three  general  types  of  cotton  are  grown — the  short  staple,  medium  long 
staple,  and  long  staple.  It  is  highly  desirable  that  one  type  be  selected  in  any 
one  section,  as  promiscuous  plantings  cause  deterioration  by  cross  pollination. 
The  short  staple  cotton  is  the  most  commonly  planted,  as  the  market  is  estab- 
lished and  less  care  is  required  in  growing.  The  short  staple  has  an  average 
length  of  one  inch,  which  is  one-eighth  inch  longer  than  the  average  in  the  South, 
and  yields  from  three-fourths  of  a  bale  to  two  bales  per  acre,  with  a  ginning 
percentage  of  33  to  34  per  cent.  The  price  varies  from  8  to  14  cents  per  pound, 
with  an  average  of  11  cents. 

The  Durango  cotton,  a  medium  long  staple  variety  coming  from  Mexico,  has 
an  average  length  of  one  and  three-sixteenths  inches.  It  yields  from  one-half 
to  two  bales  per  acre,  a  bale  to  the  acre  being  an  average.  The  ginning 
percentage  of  this  variety  is  low,  averaging  from  29  to  31  per  cent.  The  price 
is  from  2  to  4  cents  per  pound  higher  than  the  short  staple. 

The  long  staple  or  Egyptian  cotton  has  given  good  results,  but  its  cultivation 
has  been  discontinued  for  the  present  on  account  of  unsatisfactory  labor  and 
market  conditions.     The  Sea  Island  cotton  has  not  proved  a  success. 

In  securing  land  for  cotton  planting,  hard  stiff  clays  or  land  containing  an 
excess  of  alkali  should  be  avoided,  although  cotton  will  stand  more  alkali  than 
any  of  the  common  field  crops.  Medium  heavy  or  medium  light  soils  give  the 
best  results.     Old  alfalfa  land  is  very  well  adapted  to  cotton. 

Cotton  is  planted  any  time  after  the  danger  of  frost  is  over  to  the  first  of 
June,  April  being  the  best  month.  The  usual  practice  is  to  flood  the  field 
thoroughly  early  in  the  spring.  The  land  is,  then  disked  to  kill  the  weed 
growth  and  later  furrowed  from  3  feet  6  inches  to  3  feet  10  inches  apart  with 
a  lister.  After  furrowing,  the  land  is  irrigated  and  the  seed  drilled  in  from 
one  and  a  half  to  two  incnes  deep  on  the  top  of  the  ridges.  The  seed  is  usually 
irrigated  up.  The  land  is  sometimes  harrowed  after  seeding  with  very  good 
results,  especially  where  the  soil  tends  to  crack  or  crust.  Plowing  is  of  course 
very  beneficial. 


50 

Cotton  is  sometimes  planted  flat  and  where  the  soil  is  soft  the  results  are 
good.  The  land  is  flooded,  then  disked,  harrowed  and  seeded  as  soon  after 
irrigation  as  possible.  The  objection  to  this  plan  is  that  the  seed  is  often 
planted  where  there  is  insufficient  moisture  or  where  the  soil  is  not  well  com- 
pacted about  the  seed.  This  system  is  good  for  alkali  land  where  water  table 
does  not  exist,  as  the  flooding  tends  to  wash  the  salts  to  the  sub-stratum  and 
the  mulch  prevents  excessive  evaporation  and  consequent  surface  accumulation 
of  salts. 

Volunteering  cotton  from  year  to  year  has  proved  to  be  a  profitable  practice 
and  is  being  followed  quite  extensively.  If  the  rows  are  ridged  up  well  in  the 
last  cultivation,  the  earth  about  the  stem  prevents  the  freezing  of  the  buds  and 
a  good  stand  is  secured  without  reseeding,  while  if  not  ridged  many  of  the 
stalks  are  killed. 

The  main  aim  in  the  irrigation  of  cotton  is  to  maintain  as  uniform  a 
moisture  condition  as  possible.  Too  much  or  too  little  moisture  hurts  the  plants 
and  any  sudden  change  from  a  dry  to  a  wet  soil  invariably  causes  a  great  loss 
of  squares.  The  outer  growing  tips  are  good  indicators  of  the  needs  of  the 
plants.  Soils  vary  a  good  deal  in  their  water-holding  capacity  and  each  farmer 
should  know  his  soil  type  and  irrigate  accordingly. 

Cultivation  is  done  with  an  ordinary  two  horse  corn  and  cotton  cultivator 
and  is  continued  as  long  as  possible.  Very  little  hand  work  is  done,  except 
at  thinning  time,  when  the  plants  are  hoed  out  to  a  distance  of  about  eighteen 
inches.     Thinning  is  done  when  the  plants  are  from  five  to  ten  inches  high. 

The  labor  problem  is  the  main  obstacle  to  cotton  raising  in  California.  It 
is  hard  to  procure  experienced  pickers.  Most  of  the  picking  is  done  by  whites 
and  negroes,  although  Mexicans  and  Hindus  do  good  work.  Picking  costs  from 
$0.75  to  $1.25  per  hundred  pounds  seed  cotton. 

Most  of  the  cotton  goes  to  the  eastern  mills,  practically  all  of  the  Durango 
going  to  the  American  Thread  Company  of  New  York.  Cotton  is  sold  at  about 
forty  points  or  two  dollars  per  bale  off  from  the  New  York  quotations.  Most 
of  the  cotton  seed  is  sold  to  the  cotton  seed  oil  mills  at  $15  per  ton.  The  oil 
produced  is  shipped  out  and  the  cotton  seed  meal  and  hulls  are  used  locally  for 
feed.  About  one-third  of  the  cotton  is  marketed  through  the  Cotton  Growers' 
Exchange,  the  rest  going  to  individual  buyers. 

Land  suitable  for  cotton  can  be  bought  for  from  $100  to  $175  per  acre 
fully  water  stocked,  or  can  be  rented  for  from  $10  to  $15  per  acre.  There 
are  opportunities  for  getting  cheap  land,  but  when  levelled  and  water  stocked 
the  cost  will  approximate  $100. 

Cotton  is  often  grown  on  shares.  The  land  owner  usually  furnishes  all 
horses  and  tools  and  pays  the  taxes  and  all  water  charges,  the  last  named  usually 
amounting  to  about  $3  per  acre.  The  renter  furnishes  all  labor  and  receives 
from  one-half  to  three-fifths  of  the  crop  at  the  gin,  each  paying  half  the  ginning 
expenses,  which  amount  to  $4.50  per  bale.  The  seed  is  divided  equally.  If  the 
renter  furnishes  horses  and  tools  he  gets  three-fourths  of  the  crop. 


51 


FIG  CULTURE 
By  J.  Eliot  Coit,  Professor  of  Citriculture 

There  were  in  1910,  5380  acres  planted  to  figs  in  California,  and  there  has 
been  much  additional  planting  since  that  time.  About  one-half  the  fig  trees 
of  the  state  are  grown  in  Fresno  County.  The  average  consumption  of  dried 
figs  in  the  United  States  for  the  last  ten  years  was  12,100  tons  per  year.  Only 
one-fourth  this  amount  is  produced  in  California,  about  one  million  dollars  worth 
being  imported  from  Turkey  each  year. 

While  in  many  parts  of  California  from  Shasta  to  Imperial  County,  figs 
grow  and  produce  fruit  suitable  for  eating  fresh,  the  production  of  dried  figs  on 
a  commercial  scale  is  limited  largely  to  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  where  the 
climatic  conditions  permit  out-door  drying  and  curing. 

In  sections  where  the  natural  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  figs  to  be  grown 
without  irrigation,  good  land  may  be  had  at  from  $75  to  $125  an  acre.  Where 
irrigation  is  necessary  the  cost  of  land  with  rights  to  sufficient  water  for  an 
established  irrigation  system  will  vary  from  $150  to  $200  an  acre.  In  much 
of  the  available  fig  land  the  water  table  is  near  the  surface.  For  best  results 
the  water  table  should  not  be  nearer  than  ten  feet.  When  nearer  than  this 
the  value  of  the  land  should  be  discounted  and  when  nearer  than  four  feet 
figs  should  not  be  planted. 

Fig  trees  come  into  bearing  in  three  to  five  years,  and  should  be  in  full 
bearing  at  twelve  years  of  age.  Where  irrigation  is  not  practiced  the  cost  of 
bringing  an  orchard  into  bearing  will  vary  from  $40  to  $70  an  acre.  Where 
irrigated  the  cost  will  run  from  $100  to  $250. 

Average  Cost  of  Bringing  Fig  Orchard  to  Bearing 

Fifty  trees  at  20  cents  $10.00 

Plowing  4.00 

Grading   10.00 

Irrigating  system  20.00 

Planting 3.00 

Cultivating,  irrigating,  cost  of  pumped  water  200.00 

Cost  of  land  (from  $150  to  $250  per  acre)  200.00 


Total  investment  at  beginning  of  sixth  year  $447.00 

This  figure  may  be  reduced  by  raising  interculture  crops  between  the  trees. 
The  cost  of  operating  a  bearing  fig  orchard,  including  harvesting,  taxes,  interest, 
etc.,  will  vary  from  $75  to  $100  per  acre  per  year.  It  is  not  the  custom  to  rent 
fig  properties  in  California. 

The  yields  to  be  expected  vary  widely,  but  averaging  the  good  and  poor 
seasons  together,  they  may  be  expected  to  be  somewhat  as  follows:  Mission, 
2Y2  to  3^2  tons  per  acre;  Adriatic,  2  to  2%  tons;  Smyrna,  iy2  to  2  tons. 

The  fig  grower  at  present  is  at  a  great  disadvantage  in  marketing  his  crop. 
No  co-operative  selling  organization  exists,  although  there  is  a  great  need  for 
one.  Under  present  conditions  the  grower  may  receive  from  the  packers  for 
the  Mission  two  cents,  for  Adriatic  three  and  a  half  cents,  and  for  the  Smyrna 
five  to  six  cents  per  pound  on  a  sweat-box  basis.     At  present  the  Adriatic  is 


52 

especially  profitable  when  grown  as  a  border  around  vineyards  and  along  road- 
ways. Under  such  conditions  there  is  little  expense  and  the  fruit  often  sells 
on  the  trees  for  as  much  as  $2  per  tree. 

The  business  of  packing  and  shipping  fresh  figs  is  good,  but  the  profit 
depends  upon  the  price  and  the  availability  of  pickers  and  transportation 
facilities.  There  is  a  limit  to  the  amount  of  figs  which  may  be  disposed  of 
locally  in  this  way,  the  supply  far  exceeding  the  demand.  In  a  few  cases  very 
high  prices  have  been  secured  for  extremely  early  fresh  figs  shipped  from 
Coachella  Valley  to  the  New  York  market  in  crates  carrying  cracked  ice. 
Good  prices  may  be  secured  in  California  for  these  early  figs,  but  the  demand 
is  limited. 

Fig  trees  are  singularly  free  from  pests  and  diseases,  the  only  trouble  worth 
mentioning  being  a  nematode  worm,  which  inhabits  the  roots  when  grown  on 
very  light  sandy  soil. 

After  being  once  well  established  a  fig  orchard  should  bear  well  as  long  as 
properly  cared  for  or  for  one  hundred  years. 

The  artificial  process  of  caprification  is  necessary  only  with  Smyrna  varieties. 


GRAPE  GROWING 
By  F.  T.  Bioletti,  Professor  of  Viticulture  and  Enology 

Grapes  are  grown  profitably  in  every  county  in  California,  except  one  or  two 
in  the  extreme  north  and  two  or  three  in  the  higher  mountain  regions. 

Varieties  and  Localities. — Grapes  for  dry  wine  are  grown  most  profitably  in 
the  coast  counties  from  Mendocino  to  San  Diego,  where  the  acidity  of  the  fruit 
and  the  cool  weather  of  the  vintage  are  suitable;  sweet  wine  grapes  in  the 
great  interior  valleys  from  Shasta  to  Kern  and  also  in  parts  of  the  San  Gabriel 
Valley  in  Southern  California,  where  rich  soil  insures  large  crops  and  the  climate 
promotes  low  acidity  and  high  sugar  content  in  the  grapes. 

Raisin  grapes  are  grown  principally  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  with  Fresno 
as  the  center.  Here  the  Muscat  and  Sultanina  develop  the  necessary  sugar 
early  enough  to  be  dried  in  the  sun  while  the  weather  is  still  hot  and  dry. 
Minor  centers  where  good  raisins  are  made  occur  in  the  central  part  of  the 
Sacramento  Valley  and  even  near  the  coast  in  the  extreme  south,  but  drying 
the  fruit  is  often  uncertain  and  dipping  or  artificial  driers  must  sometimes  be 
resorted  to. 

The  earliest  shipping  grapes  are  Sultanina  and  Malaga  from  the  Coachella 
and  Imperial  valleys.  The  next,  principally  of  the  same  varieties,  come  from 
the  foothills  of  Tulare  County  and  the  neighborhood  of  Winters  and  Vacaville. 
Malaga  is  the  principal  white  shipping  grape  and  is  grown  most  largely  in  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley  south  of  Modesto.  The  Flame  Tokay,  which  constitutes  the 
main  bulk  shipped,  is  grown  principally  in  San  Joaquin  County,  with  Lodi  as 
a  center  and  in  Sacramento  County  along  the  American  River.  Farther  south 
it  fails  to  develop  sufficient  color.  The  next  most  important  shipping  grape 
is  the  Emperor,  grown  principally  in  Tulare  and  Fresno  counties.  The  latest 
shipping  grapes  are  grown  in  Contra  Costa  and  Santa  Cruz  counties  principally. 
In  general,  shipping  grapes  can  be  grown  profitably  only  in  localities  where 
packing  and  transportation  facilities  have  been  established.  Rich  soil  and 
abundant  water  are  necessary. 


53 

On  a  twenty  acre  vineyard  most  of  the  work  except  harvesting  can  be  done 
by  the  owner  himself.  Unless  he  has  had  considerable  experience,  it  would  be 
unwise  to  attempt  to  handle  more. 

In  starting  a  vineyard  great  care  should  be  used  in  choosing  the  planting 
stock.  As  a  rule  one  year  old  rooted  vines  grown  from  cuttings  carefully 
selected  from  healthy,  profitable  vines  should  be  used.  In  rich,  moist,  sandy 
loam  the  cuttings  may  often  be  planted  directly  in  the  field  with  considerable 
saving  in  expense  and  some  in  time.  In  most  of  the  coast  regions  phylloxera 
resistant  bench  grafts  must  be  used. 

The  soil  should  be  cleared,  levelled  where  irrigation  is  needed,  and  plowed 
or  subsoiled  at  least  twelve  inches  deep  before  planting.  Great  care  in  train- 
ing and  pruning  the  young  vines  for  the  first  three  years  before  they  come  into 
bearing  is  necessary.  Stakes  must  be  used  from  the  end  of  the  first  year  until 
the  vines  can  support  themselves.  Some  varieties,  such  as  Sultanina,  require 
trellising.  Pruning  must  be  done  by  expert  hands  and  must  be  adapted  to  the 
particular  variety.  Sulfuring  once,  twice,  or  three  times  during  the  season  is 
needed  to  control  the  Oidium.  Special  methods  of  thinning  and  harvesting 
are  needed  for  some  table  grapes. 

A  well-managed  vineyard  may  yield  a  net  profit  of  from  $50  to  $200  per 
acre  when  in  full  bearing.  One  which  is  neglected  will  often  fail  to  pay  running 
expenses. 

Suitable  land  can  be  obtained  for  from  $150  to  $250  per  acre  in  small  tracts. 
The  cost  of  planting  and  care  of  an  ordinary  vineyard  for  the  first  three  years 
will  be  about  $150.  Where  resistant  vines  are  used  about  $40  per  acre  must 
be  added  to  this.  If  the  vines  are  to  be  trellised  like  Sultaninas  from  $25  to 
$30  per  acre  must  be  added. 

The  average  cultural  expenses  of  a  bearing  vineyard  will  seldom  be  less 
than  $12  per  acre  per  annum  and  the  fixed  charges  for  taxes,  depreciation,  and 
interest  on  the  investment  will  usually  exceed  $20.  The  production  of  shipping 
grapes  perhaps  offers  the  most  promising  opportunity  for  profit,  but  whether 
the  promises  will  be  realized  depends  on  co-operation  of  the  growers  in  marketing. 


ONION  RAISING 
By  S.  S.  Rogers,  Assistant  Professor  of  Plant  Pathology 

The  requirements  for  onions  are  so  exacting  that  the  novice  should  not 
undertake  the  production  of  onions  on  a  large  scale  until  the  requirements  of 
the  crop  are  known  and  local  conditions  thoroughly  understood  There  is  such 
an  enormous  acreage  adapted  to  onion  growing  in  this  state  that  the  markets 
may  be  easily  glutted.  Some  years  the  grower  may  realize  a  net  profit  of  several 
hundred  dollars  per  acre  and  the  next  season  the  returns  may  not  be  sufficient 
to  meet  expenses. 

The  largest  centers  for  the  production  of  onion  seed  are  located  in  the  Santa 
Clara  Valley  near  the  city  of  San  Jose  and  in  San  Benito  County  near  the 
town  of  Hollister.  Onions  for  the  market  are  produced  in  large  quantities  in 
the  Imperial  Valley  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  larger  cities  such  as  San 
Francisco,  Oakland,  Sacramento,  Fresno,  and  Los  Angeles.  Onions  will  grow 
on  a  variety  of  soils,  but  the  most  favorable  is  one  which  holds  moisture  well 
although    friable    enough    to    be    easily    cultivated    and    to    allow    the    proper 


54 

expansion  of  the  root.  A  heavy,  sticky  adobe  or  a  coarse,  gravelly  soil  should 
be  avoided.  The  onion  can  stand  without  injury  a  much  lower  temperature 
than  many  other  vegetables,  and  if  given  sufficient  moisture  it  will  endure  the 
heat  well.  Before  planting,  the  soil  should  be  put  into  the  finest  condition 
of  tilth  possible  and  the  culture  throughout  the  entire  season  should  be  such 
that  there  will  be  no  weed  growth  and  a  good  mulch  preserved.  If  hand 
implements  are  used  the  rows  may  be  planted  about  twelve  inches  apart,  while 
if  the  cultivation  is  to  be  done  by  horse-drawn  implements  the  rows  should  be 
two  to  three  feet  apart.  Cover  the  seed  about  one-half  an  inch  when  planting 
on  heavy  soil  and  about  one  inch  when  planting  on  light  soil  or  late  in  the 
season.  In  many  sections  of  California  onions  can  be  successfully  sown  during 
any  month  of  the  year,  but  the  bulk  of  the  seeding  is  done  during  the  months 
of  February  to  May,  inclusive.  Onions  are  propagated  in  California  from  seed 
planted  directly  in  the  field,  by  transplanting  the  seedlings,  and  from  sets. 
The  first  two  methods  are  the  most  common.  The  Red  Wethersfield,  Australian 
Brown,  and  Danvers  Globe  are  the  most  popular  varieties,  although  there  are 
many  others  grown  in  this  state. 

When  grown  for  pickles  and  green  onions  harvest  whenever  they  attain  the 
desired  size.  For  dry  onions  harvesting  should  not  be  commenced  until  the  tops 
of  the  majority  of  the  onions  have  begun  to  turn  yellow  and  dry.  If  deferred 
too  long  the  onions  will  grow  new  roots,  which  ruins  them  for  marketing 
except  when  consumed  immediately.  The  crop  is  thrown  in  windrows  and 
allowed  to  cure  for  several  days  and  in  some  localities  longer.  When  the  tops 
have  become  thoroughly  dried  they  are  cut  or  twisted  off  about  one-half  an 
inch  from  the  bulb.  The  latter  are  placed  in  piles,  thoroughly  dried  and  sacked. 
When  growing  onions  for  seed,  the  first  season's  work  consists  of  growing  the 
bulbs  or  mother  onions,  which  are  produced  and  harvested  in  the  same  manner 
as  growing  mature  onions.  In  the  following  spring  these  bulbs  are  trans- 
planted to  the  field  and  are  allowed  to  go  to  seed.  In  the  fall,  when  the  seed 
has  completely  ripened  it  is  harvested,  cleaned,  and  stored  in  sacks  ready  for 
shipment. 

Soil  suitable  for  onion  growing  ordinarily  varies  from  $200  to  $500  per  acre, 
including  a  suitable  water  supply.  Most  of  the  manual  labor  is  done  by 
Japanese,  who  are  paid  from  $1.50  to  $2  per  day. 


OLIVE  CULTURE 

By  W.  F.  Oglesby,  Assistant  in  Viticulture 

Regions. — Olives  may  be  grown  in  most  of  the  foothill  sections  of  the  interior 
valleys  as  far  north  as  Redding  and  in  the  warmer  sections  out  on  the  floor  of 
these  valleys.  They  may,  also,  be  grown  in  favored  spots  in  all  the  coast  valleys 
south  of  Mendocino  County,  although  the  cooler  atmosphere  retards  somewhat 
the  development  and  ripening  of  the  fruit,  and  black  scale  is  often  troublesome 
and  hard  to  control.  It  would  be  well  for  those  who  contemplate  the  planting 
of  olive  orchards  to  visit  such  places  as  Oroville,  Fresno,  San  Bernardino,  Los 
Angeles,  and  San  Diego,  as  the  factors  in  these  places  and  the  districts  around 
them  will  give  some  idea  of  conditions  required.  If  the  visit  be  made  in  late 
summer    the    disadvantages    of    shallow,    leachy,    heavy,    or   poorly    drained    soils, 


55 

as  well  as  close  planting,  poor  pruning,  poor  cultivation,  and  poor  drainage, 
will  be  readily  seen. 

Climate. — Olive  trees  will  grow  wherever  the  temperature  does  not  go  below 
15°  F  in  winter,  but  for  fruit  the  latest  killing  frost  in  spring  should  be  in 
April  and  the  earliest  killing  frost  in  the  fall  late  in  November.  From  blossom- 
ing time  to  frost  or  for  at  least  six  and  one-half  months  the  mean  daily 
temperature  should  not  be  less  than  66°  F.     A  higher  mean  would  be  better. 

Soil. — A  deep,  rich,  well-drained,  sandy  loam  with  a  high  lime  content  and 
enough  ferric  oxide  to  give  it  a  good  red  color  is  the  ideal  soil  for  olives.  They 
will  do  fairly  well,  however,  on  any  well  drained  soil.  Very  heavy  or  poorly 
drained  soils,  as  well  -as  those  too  coarse  or  gravelly  to  hold  moisture,  should 
be  avoided. 

Irrigation. — No  olive  orchard  should  be  planted  without  making  provision 
for  irrigation.  The  trees  may  do  well  and  an  occasional  crop  may  be  obtained, 
but  an  unirrigated  olive  orchard  will  prove  of  little  commercial  value.  An 
olive  orchard  should  be  irrigated  from  three  to  twelve  times  per  year,  accord- 
ing to  the  character  and  depth  of  the  soil.  An  equivalent  of  one  miner's  inch 
continuous  flow  during  the  growing  season  should  be  provided  for  each  five 
acres  of  orchard  as  a  minimum. 

Cultivation. — Olive  orchards  should  be  plowed  deeply  at  least  once  a  year 
and  thoroughly  cultivated  after  each  irrigation. 

Pruning. — Annual  pruning  is  necessary  if  annual  crops  are  to  be  expected. 

If  the  pruning  is  neglected  the  tree  will  produce  crops  biennially  or  less 
frequently.  Pruning  should  keep  the  head  of  the  tree  low  and  open  and 
should  regulate  the  amount  of  fruiting  brush  left  from  year  to  year. 

Harvesting. — All  olives  should  be  hand-picked.  The  degree  of  ripeness 
depends  on  the  use  to  which  the  fruit  is  intended.  If  for  green  pickles,  fruit 
should  be  full  grown  but  still  green  in  color.  For  ripe  pickles  and  oil,  fruit 
should  be  well  colored,  color  varying  according  to  variety.  Varieties  grown 
should  be  confined  to  those  that  grow  large  enough  fruit  for  pickling.  Mission, 
Manzanillo,  Sevillano,  and  Ascalano  are  the  most  favored  at  present. 

Labor. — Price  of  labor  will  vary  from  $2  to  $3  per  day,  according  to  the 
work  done,  expert  growers  and  grafters  getting  the  higher  price.  The  picking 
of  the  fruit  by  hand  will  cost  about  $20  per  ton.  One  man  may  care  for  from 
ten  to  forty  acres.     In  any  case  he  will  need  help  at  picking  and  pruning  time. 

Lands  Still  Available. — The  lower  foothills,  bench  lands,  and  alluvial  fans 
and,  in  the  warmer  sections,  the  well-drained  bottom  lands  of  situations  men- 
tioned under  "Regions." 

Commercial  Value  of  Developed  and  Undeveloped  Land. — Developed  land  is 
valued  at  from  $300  to  $600  per  acre;  undeveloped  land  at  from  $25  to  $300 
per  acre,  price  depending  on  location,  character  of  the  land,  cost  of  levelling,  etc. 

Marketing. — For  the  most  part  olives  are  sold  directly  to  the  canners  and 
oil  makers.  Some  growers  have  their  own  plants  for  pickling,  but  oil  making 
requires  such  expensive  machinery  that  very  few  individuals  have  them.  There 
is  little  money  in  oil,  so  that  the  present  tendency  is  to  grow  only  such 
varieties  as  are  good  for  pickling.  Oil  is  a  by-product.  Only  the  undersized 
and  frosted  olives  are  now  turned  into  oil. 


56 


PEAR  CULTURE 
By  Ralph  E.  Smith,  Professor  of  Plant  Pathology 

Soil  and  Climate. — The  best  pear  soil  is  deep  and  rather  heavy,  with  plenty 
of  moisture.  Alluvial  river  bottoms  and  moist  clay-loam  foothill  slopes  char- 
acterize our  chief  pear  sections.  The  tree  will  stand  more  drouth,  moisture, 
and  alkali  than  most  fruits,  however,  and  thus  is  often  used  to  fill  in  low,  wet 
or  slightly  alkali  spots  or  sloughs  in  orchards  of  peaches  or  apricots  where 
the  latter  trees  would  not  live.  Pears  are  not  very  particular  as  to  climate, 
flourishing  equally  well  near  the  coast,  in  the  interior  valleys,  and  among  the 
foothills.    Irrigation  is  usually  needed. 

Districts. — The  greatest  acreage  of  pears  in  California  is  to  be  found  in  the 
central  coast  valleys,  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  adjacent  regions  and  the  Sierra 
foothills  of  El  Dorado,  Placer,  Sacramento,  and  Nevada  counties.  San  Jose, 
Sacramento,  Placerville,  Marysville,  and  Anderson  are  centers  of  production. 

Culture. — The  Bartlett  is  the  principal  and  most  exclusive  variety  grown  in 
California.  A  few  others  like  the  Winter  Nelis  are  sometimes  quite  profitable, 
but  their  culture  is  exceptional.  French  seedling  has  been  the  asual  rootstock, 
but  the  Japanese  pear  is  coming  into  use  on  account  of  some  resistance  to 
blight  and  wooly  aphis.  Pears  are  planted  about  twenty-four  feet  apart,  or 
seventy-five  trees  per  acre.  The  trees  cost  about  twenty  cents  each  in  quantity. 
Six  to  eight  years  is  required  to  commence  commercial  bearing.  The  trees  are 
long-lived  and  very  hardy.  Other  crops  may  be  grown  between  while  the 
trees  are  young.  Orchards  should  be  plowed  in  spring,  irrigated  from  two  to 
five  times  according  to  locality,  and  cultivated  frequently.  Severe  pruning  is 
necessary.  The  tree  when  planted  should  be  cut  back  to  a  height  of  twenty 
inches  and  each  year's  growth  thereafter  should  be  shortened  to  a  length  of 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches,  thinning  also  to  a  framework  of  three  to  five, 
frequently  branched  main  limbs.  Lateral  branches  should  be  headed  in  to  pro- 
duce fruit  spurs.  Fertilization  is  not  much  practiced  and  is  often  undesirable  on 
account  of  making  the  trees  more  susceptible  to  blight.  Spraying  is  necessary 
to  control  scab,  codling  worm  and  other  pests.  The  usual  practice  is  a  late 
winter  application  of  lime-sulphur  just  before  the  growth  starts,  one  combined 
spray  of  Bordeaux  mixture  and  lead  arsenate  after  blooming,  and  one  or  two 
later  sprayings  with  lead  arsenate. 

Harvesting. — The  fruit  is  picked  carefully  from  the  tree  by  hand  when 
"  hard  ripe." 

Marketing. — There  are  three  principal  uses  for  California  pears:  canning, 
sun-drying,  and  shipping  fresh.  The  Bartlett  is  preeminent  on  account  of  its 
suitability  for  all  of  these  purposes.  The  fruit  is  shipped  to  the  canner  in 
loose  boxes.  Drying  is  often  done  by  the  grower  himself.  For  shipping,  each 
pear  is  wrapped  in  paper  and  they  are  then  packed  carefully  in  standard  sized 
boxes. 

Cost  of  Production. — Production  and  harvesting  expenses  vary  widely,  but 
$75  per  acre  is  a  fairly  liberal  average  of  yearly  expense  with  good  care. 

Returns. — Production  of  trees  ten  years  of  age  and  up  varies  from  three  to 
ten  tons  per  acre,  and  the  usual  price  from  $25  to  $40  per  ton.  The  foothill 
districts  of  smaller  yield  per  tree  make  up  to  some  extent  by  high  shipping 
quality  of  the  fruit.     Groves  average  from  ten  to  one  hundred  acres. 

Cost  of  Groves  and  Land. — Good  pear  land,  with  water,  can  be  bought  at 
from  $60  to  $200  per  acre,  and  producing  groves  are  worth  from  $300  to  $1000. 


57 

Labor. — Laborers  receive  from  $1.75  to  $2.50  per  day.  Man  and  team,  $3.50 
to  $5. 

Troubles. — Two  diseases,  blight  and  scab;  an  insect,  codling  worm;  and  an 
occasional  late  frost  are  the  chief  obstacles  to  pear  culture.  Scab  and  worms 
can  be  controlled  by  spraying.  Blight  is  a  very  serious  enemy  and  has  ruined 
thousands  of  acres  of  pears  in  California  and  elsewhere.  Pear  planting  is 
somewhat  hazardous  on  account  of  this  disease,  although  it  can  be  fairly  well 
controlled  by  very  careful  work.  Control  is  effected  by  very  thorough  removal 
of  affected  parts,  especially  during  the  winter.  The  disease  is  extremely 
infectious.  Partially  resistant  trees  are  being  developed.  Special  information 
should  be  sought  in  blight  control. 


POTATO  CULTURE 
By  John  W.  Gilmore,  Professor  of  Agronomy 

The  principal  regions  are  in  the  delta  lands  of  San  Joaquin  and  Contra 
Costa  counties,  and  the  Salinas  Valley  of  Monterey  County.  Those  desiring 
to  investigate  this  industry  would  do  well  to  visit  the  regions  in  the  vicinity  of 
Middle  River,  Holt  and  Stockton  for  the  delta  country,  Blanco  and  Salinas 
(Monterey  County)  and  Sebastopol  (Sonoma  County)  for  the  other  regions. 
There  is,  also,  a  considerable  acreage  in  Los  Angeles,  Orange,  and  Imperial 
counties. 

The  delta  region  consists  of  lowlands  which  for  a  long  period  of  time  have 
been  inundated  by  the  high  waters  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers. 
They  have  been  overgrown  by  juncus  (tule)  and  other  marsh  plants.  These 
marshes  have  been  reclaimed  by  constructing  levees  along  the  water  courses 
and  then  by  electrically  driven  pumps  the  water  has  been  removed  to  a  level 
sufficiently  low  to  grow  crops.  The  soil  consists  of  partly  decomposed  vegetable 
matter  mixed  with  sediment  from  the  overflows,  and  in  this  form  it  is  loose 
and  friable  and  permits  the  ready  movement  of  water.  The  soil  is  well  suited 
not  only  to  potatoes,  but  to  onions,  asparagus,  beans,  and  barley. 

Because  this  soil  is  very  rich  in  organic  matter,  and  because  of  its  loose 
texture  and  abundance  of  moisture,  diseases  that  affect  the  potato  thrive 
readily.  These  do  not  often  materially  damage  the  first  crop,  but  they  are 
sufficiently  prevalent  to  infest  and  multiply  in  the  soil,  so  that  future  crops 
are  often  greatly  reduced.  The  disease  causing  the  most  trouble  is  the 
Rhizoctonia.  It  infests  the  soils  from  year  to  year,  and  while  it  affects  the 
tubers  it  does  not  render  them  unfit  for  use.  Its  principle  effect  is  upon  the 
young  shoots  which  after  becoming  thoroughly  diseased  die  before  the  tubers 
are  formed,  but  too  late  in  the  season  for  replanting.  The  only  effective 
remedy  against  this  disease  now  known  is  to  plant  the  land  to  non-affected 
crops  until  the  disease  is  starved  out.  It  is  estimated  that  this  disease  causes 
an  annual  loss  to  potato  growers  in  this  region  of  from  20  to  25  per  cent  of 
the  crop,  or  a  money  loss  of  nearly,  if  not  fully,  a  million  dollars. 

Wilt  disease  (caused  by  Fusarium  and  Verticilium)  is  also  very  common  in 
this  region  and  attacks  both  the  tubers  in  the  soil  and  the  growing  stems  just 
below  the  surface.  The  disease  has  the  effect  of  cutting  off  the  water  supply 
to  the  growing  parts  of  the  plants  from  the  roots.  The  disease  also  produces 
conditions  favorable  for  the  infestation  of  the  tubers  and  stems  by  other 
diseases.     The  use  of  disease-free  tubers  for  seed  and  the  witholding  of  potatoes 


58 

from  the  land  for  a  period  of  years  are  the  only  practicable  remedies  against 
the  disease. 

Scab  also  causes  considerable  loss  in  the  field  as  well  as  after  digging.  This 
disease  may  be  held  in  check  by  planting  disease-free  tubers  and  by  practicing 
a  long  rotation,  which  prevents  the  disease  from  thriving  in  the  soil. 

In  this  region  the  land  is  generally  plowed  in  the  fall  or  winter  and  again 
at  planting  time.  Planting  begins  in  March  and  continues  into  June  and 
sometimes  into  July,  though  this  is  well  known  to  be  too  late  for  good  results. 
As  a  general  rule  the  planting  is  accomplished  by  hand,  dropping  the  seed  pieces 
behind  the  plow  every  second  or  third  round.  As  this  is  very  strong  land 
the  potato  crop  is  often  affected  by  weeds,  and  much  of  the  labor  of  growing 
the  crop  is  expended  in  their  destruction. 

The  yields  in  this  section  vary  greatly.  The  factors  which  influence  the 
yield  are  diseases,  lack  of  storage  facilities  for  seed  and  the  culture  methods, 
especially  the  preparation  of  the  land  and  the  rotation  of  crops.  Because  of 
these  factors  the  yield  varies  from  65  to  750  bushels  per  acre. 

There  is  a  tendency  to  grow  potatoes  continuously  for  as  long  a  period  as 
possible,  for  this  crop  pays  better  returns  when  not  affected  than  most  other 
crops.  It  has  not  been  found  possible  to  do  this,  however,  without  incurring 
greatly  diminished  yields.  Consequently,  successful  potato  growing  in  this 
region  is  contingent  upon  adopting  culture  methods,  especially  in  respect  to 
rotation  crops  that  will  keep  the  soil  bare  from  the  disease. 

Much  of  this  land  is  held  by  companies  or  by  single  owners  in  large  tracts. 
It  is  usually  rented  to  Japanese  or  Chinese  tenants  at  from  $20  to  $35  an  acre, 
or  when  on  shares,  for  one-third  of  the  crop.  The  cash  rental  of  land  for 
potatoes,  however,  is  the  more  usual  method.  Where  labor  is  hired  it  is 
generally  Japanese  or  Chinese  and  wages  commonly  paid  are  $2  to  $2.50  per 
day.  The  intrinsic  value  of  these  lands  depends  upon  the  prevalence  of  disease 
in  the  soil  and  the  equipment  of  the  farmer  for  using  other  crops  profitably  in 
rotation.  But  little  of  this  land  is  for  sale,  but  that  which  is  for  sale  is 
held  at  from  $300  to  $500  per  acre. 

A  good  deal  of  land  in  this  section  still  remains  to  be  reclaimed,  but  it  can 
only  be  done  at  considerable  expense  and  by  companies  or  individuals  not 
demanding  immediate  returns  on  the  money  invested. 

Salinas  Valley. — The  conditions  under  which  potatoes  are  grown  in  this 
region  are  typical  of  other  portions  of  the  state.  They  differ,  however,  from 
those  in  the  delta  region,  principally  in  respect  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and 
lesser  prevalence  of  disease.  The  soil  on  the  other  hand  is  not  so  productive. 
The  yields  vary  from  60  to  200  bushels  per  acre.  The  average  is  about  100 
bushels,  but  on  reasonably  good  land  and  by  practicing  good  cultural  methods, 
about  150  bushels  may  be  counted  upon.  In  this  section  much  of  the  potato  land 
is  rotated  with  sugar  beets.  The  deep  rooted  nature  of  both  of  these  crops  and 
the  tillage  methods  keep  the  land  in  good  tilth  and  in  good  producing  capacity. 

In  both  of  the  sections  mentioned  potatoes  are  harvested  both  by  hand  and 
by  machine  diggers  and  are  marketed  in  sacks  weighing  about  110  pounds,  the 
price  ranges  from  90  cents  to  $1.65  per  sack  (50  cents  to  90  cents  per  bushel). 

In  any  section  of  California  the  successful  production  of  potatoes  depends 
most  largely  upon  the  prevalence  of  a  deep  loam  soil  well  supplied  with 
moisture  and  free  from  disease  infestation.  The  interior  valleys  where  the 
temperature  during  the  growing  season  is  excessively  hot  must  be  avoided,  for 
the  potato  thrives  best  in  a  cool  soil. 


59 


PRUNES 

By  Thomas  Francis  Hunt,  Assistant  Superintendent  of 

Farmers '  Institutes 

''All  prunes  are  plums,  but  all  plums  are  not  prunes.  A  prune  is  a  plum 
which  can  be  dried  without  the  removal  of  the  pit  without  fermenting."  The 
prune  belongs  to  the  genus  Prunus,  of  which  there  are  a  great  many  cultivated 
varieties.  Some  of  the  most  common  grown  commercially  are  the  Prune  d'Agen, 
Robe  de  Sargeant,  German  prune,  Imperial,  Sugar,  Giant,  and  Silver. 

The  culture  of  prunes  constitutes  a  very  large  branch  of  California  horti- 
culture because  the  prune  is  a  standard  article  of  diet  and  is  marketed  as  fresh 
and  dried  fruit.  More  prunes  are  sold  than  any  other  dried  fruit  in  California. 
The  range  of  soil  and  climatic  conditions  for  the  prune  is  very  large.  They  are 
grown  successfully  in  the  Valleys  near  the  coast  (not  on  the  coast),  as  in  the 
Santa  Clara  Valley,  Santa  Rosa,  Napa,  and  other  of  the  smaller  valleys.  In 
the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  valleys,  where  conditions  are  quite  different, 
we  find  prune  orchards  doing  well,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  Hanford,  Visalia, 
Vaca  Valley,  Yuba  City,  and  Chico.  Smaller  areas  are  found  in  the  foothills 
near  Auburn  and  Newcastle,  where  they  do  well. 

Soils — The  prune  is  grown  generally  in  deep,  fertile,  well-drained  soils,  not 
too  sandy  nor  too  heavy  like  the  clays  and  adobes.  Because  the  tree  is  quite 
adaptable,  a  great  many  are  planted  on  soils  that  are  not  suitable,  such  as  the 
light  sands,  clays  and  adobes,  and  under  these  conditions  the  trees  grow  with 
varying  degrees  of  success.  In  selecting  a  soil  for  prunes,  there  are  certain 
things  one  should  observe  very  carefully  before  planting,  and  try  to  avoid. 
The  soil  should  be  deep,  not  underlaid  with  hardpan,  standing  water,  strata  of 
coarse  gravel,  or  impervious  clay  near  the  surface.  The  physical  condition  of 
the  soil  in  regard  to  humus  and  plant  food  is  also  important.  One  may  not 
always  be  able  to  get  a  soil  where  all  these  conditions  are  ideal,  but  should 
select  as  nearly  this  type  as  possible.  The  conditions  to  avoid  named  above 
are  quite  often  improved  by  deep  plowing,  the  use  of  explosives,  drainage, 
barnyard  manures,  and  green  manure  crops.  These  factors  will  have  an  import- 
ant bearing  on  the  value  of  the  land.  Unimproved  land  in  sections  of  the  state 
where  the  industry  is  highly  developed,  as  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  sells  for 
$150  to  $350  an  acre.  Improved  lands  in  these  sections  bring  from  $450  to 
$650  per  acre.  In  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  valleys,  unimproved  land 
brings  from  $100  to  $200  per  acre  and  improved  land  brings  from  $250  to  $400. 

Developing. — There  is  quite  a  choice  of  locations  and  one  should  take  into 
consideration  climatic  conditions  in  regard  to  one's  personal  comfort,  price 
of  land  in  various  sections,  returns  from  crop,  amount  of  money  to  be  invested, 
and  income  desired.  The  high  priced  land  is  found  where  the  industry  is  highly 
developed  and  where  living  conditions  are  particularly  desirable,  as  in  the 
counties  along  the  coast.  Good  prune  land,  not  so  high  priced,  can  still  be 
obtained  along  the  streams  in  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  valleys.  Still 
cheaper  lands  adapted  to  prunes,  usually  in  small  tracts,  can  be  obtained  in  the 
foothill  sections  of  the  state.  In  all  of  these  three  general  sections,  prune  grow 
ing  is  usually  beyond  the  experimental  stage,  so  that  with  a  given  type  of  soil 
selected  and  the  local  experience  in  regard  to  varieties  for  that  locality,  one 
can  proceed.     The  trees  can  be  propagated  in  several  ways,  but  budded  trees 


60 

are  universally  used.  Several  stocks  may  be  used  for  various  soil  conditions, 
but  experience  has  taught  that  the  Myrobalan  root  is  generally  used,  particularly 
if  the  soil  is  heavy  or  drainage  conditions  are  bad.  The  peach  and  almond  root 
are  used  considerably,  on  the  lighter  soils  and  where  the  drainage  is  good. 
It  is  usually  better  to  obtain  trees  from  some  reliable  nursery  firm,  of  which 
there  are  a  great  many  in  the  state.  The  trees  are  planted  in  squares,  rect- 
angles, or  triangles.  The  usual  distance  is  twenty-two  to  twenty-six  feet, 
depending  on  local  conditions,  varieties,  etc.  The  general  practice  is  to  cut  the 
tree  back  to  a  single  stock  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  high  at  the  time 
of  planting,  then  shape  the  tree,  by  pruning,  the  next  two  or  three  years. 
Others  do  not  prune  at  all,  but  let  the  tree  grow  as  it  will.  The  cultural  methods 
will  vary  a  little  in  different  sections,  but  is  not  unlike  the  general  care  given 
other  orchards  in  regard  to  plowing,  cultivating,  and  irrigating. 

Handling  the  Crop. — There  are  three  general  methods  of  handling  the  crop. 
These  are  governed  usually  by  the  size  of  the  farm.  The  first  and  most  common 
is  the  case  of  the  owner  who  has  ten  or  twenty  acres  and  he  and  his  family 
do  all  the  work,  with  perhaps,  additional  help  at  harvest  time.  The  second 
class  is  of  large  tracts  of  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  acres,  which  are  handled 
almost  entirely  with  hired  labor.  Third,  the  renter.  In  this  case,  the  land  is 
rented  for  a  cash  rental,  or  on  a  crop  basis,  which  is  usually  one-third  to  one- 
half  for  the  man  who  rents  and  one-half  to  two-thirds  to  the  owner.  The 
labor  is  supplied  chiefly  by  white  people  who  live  in  the  community  and  by 
transients,  mostly  Orientals,  who  are  employed  during  the  rush  season.  The  fruit 
ripens  on  the  tree  and  falls  to  the  ground,  when  it  is  gathered,  hauled  to  the 
dipping  shed,  dipped  in  a  solution  of  lye,  and  placed  on  trays  in  the  sun  to 
dry.  After  the  fruit  has  been  dried,  it  is  put  in  sacks  and  sold  to  the  large 
packing  concerns,  or  handled  by  the  farmers'  co-operative  organizations. 

Insect  Pests  and  Diseases. — The  prune,  like  other  fruit  trees,  is  attacked  by 
certain  insects  and  diseases.  The  most  serious  insect  pests  are  thrips,  root 
borers,  and  red  spider.     The  worst  diseases  are  crown  gall  and  gummosis. 


SEMI-TROPICAL  FRUITS 
By  I.  J.  Condit,  Instructor  in  Citriculture 

The  following  semi-tropical  fruits,  aside  from  citrus  fruits,  olives  and  figs, 
are  now  being  grown  in  California,  and  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant 
commercial  plantings:  Pomegranate,  guava,  feijoa,  loquat,  Japanese  persimmon, 
avocado,  and  date.     All  these  crops  require  irrigation. 

The  pomegranate  is  grown  more  or  less  commonly  throughout  California 
except  at  elevations  above  1500  feet.  As  a  commercial  fruit  it  is  now  found 
in  the  Imperial  and  Coachella  valleys  and  other  parts  of  Southern  California, 
and  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley;  at  Lindsay  and  Porterville  it  is  largely  planted 
as  a  border  around  citrus  orchards,  thus  serving  both  ornamental  and  com- 
mercial purposes.  The  guava  is  commercially  grown  in  San  Diego,  Los  Angeles, 
Orange,  and  Santa  Barbara  counties. 

The  feijoa  is  a  new  fruit  introduced  into  California  in  1901;  it  is  closely 
related  to  the  guava  and  is  sometimes  known  as  the  pineapple  guava.  It  is 
quite    hardy,    not    being    injured    by    a    temperature    as    low    as    5°  F.      A    few 


61 

commercial  plantings  have  been  made  both  in  Southern  California  and  in  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley,  but  these  are  mainly  experimental. 

The  loqnat  is  one  of  our  neglected  fruits.  While  it  has  been  grown  in 
California  for  more  than  sixty  years,  and  is  found  widely  distributed  over 
the  state  as  a  dooryard  and  ornamental  tree,  the  planting  for  commercial 
purposes  is  practically  limited  to  Orange  County,  where  there  are  several 
orchards  of  five  to  fourteen  acres  in  extent. 

The  Kaki  or  Japanese  persimmon  is  a  deciduous  tree  and  therefore  is  not  so 
liable  to  frost  injury.  It  is  grown  commercially  to  a  limited  extent  along  with 
loquats,  citrus  fruits,  and  avocados  in  Orange  and  Los  Angeles  counties,  while 
plantings  of  a  few  trees  for  home  use  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  state. 

The  avocado  is  one  of  the  newer  fruits  which  is  creating  a  great  deal  of 
interest  at  the  present  time,  especially  in  Southern  California.  Experimental 
plantings  are  being  made  in  Butte  County  and  in  some  parts  of  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  as  well. 

Date  growing  in  a  commercial  way  is  restricted  to  the  hotter  parts  of  the 
Imperial  and  the  Coachella  valleys. 


SUGAR  BEET  CULTURE 
By  R.  L.  Adams,  Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy 

Sugar  beet  culture  is  confined  to  the  vicinity  of  sugar  beet  factories,  their 
culture  seldom  proving  profitable  at  a  distance  greater  than  one  hundred  miles 
from  a  factory.  Their  growing  can  therefore  best  be  investigated  in  the 
territory  surrounding  the  factories  at  Alvarado,  Anaheim,  Betteravia,  Chino, 
Hamilton  City,  Huntington  Beach,  Oxnard,  Spreckels,  Santa  Ana,  and  Visalia. 

Since  the  first  six  to  eight  tons  of  beets  produced  are  required  to  pay  the 
cost  of  production,  only  soils  capable  of  yielding  good  crops  should  be  selected. 
Soils  should  be  avoided  which  are  shallow,  poorly  drained,  of  poor  texture,  high 
in  alkali,  lacking  in  plant  food  or  humus,  or  incapable  of  adequately  supplying 
the  moisture  requirements  of  the  crop. 

Land  for  sugar  beets  usually  commands  high  prices — $200  or  more  per  acre 
— but  can  be  rented  on  a  share  or  cash  basis,  the  former  requiring  as  payment 
one-fourth  or  one-fifth  of  the  crop,  the  latter  about  $15  per  acre.  Where  sugar 
beets  are  the  primary  crop  the  farms  range  from  60  to  400  acres  in  size.  As 
a  rule,  however,  100  acres  may  be  considered  the  unit  farm. 

Sugar  beet  culture  requires  a  high  grade  of  work  stock  and  special  equipment, 
amounting  in  all  to  about  $2000  for  each  hundred  acres. 

Land  to  go  in  sugar  beets  should  be  put  in  a  fine  state  of  cultivation  by 
the  complete  eradication  of  former  crops — as  alfalfa  or  the  subjection  of  raw 
conditions — as  preceding  beets  with  some  other  crop  on  newly  broken  lands. 
It  is  essential  to  plow  as  deep  as  is  consistent  with  the  past  handling  of  the 
land  and  to  work  down  to  a  fine,  firm  seedbed.  The  common  practice  is  to  do 
the  bulk  of  the  heavy  work  in  the  fall  after  applying  an  irrigation,  or  early 
in  the  rainy  season  after  sufficient  moisture  falls  to  start  the  weeds  and  bring 
the  soil  into  the  proper  condition  for  working.  The  land  is  occasionally  worked 
over  until  seeding  time,  which  ranges  from  November  to  May,  depending  on 
the  section,  the  bulk  of  the  seeding,  however,  being  done  in  February  and  March. 


62 

The  seed  is  drilled  with  machines  rented  from  the  factories.  These  seeders 
plant  either  four  or  eight  rows  at  a  time  at  distances  varying  from  18  to  28 
inches,  the  22  inch  and  24  inch  sizes  being  most  popular. 

Cultivation  starts  as  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  seen  and  is  repeated  as  con- 
ditions demand  until  the  crop  is  laid  by.  When  the  plants  have  four  true  leaves 
they  are  thinned  to  distances  which  leave  the  remaining  plants  at  from  eight  to 
twenty- four  inches  apart,  the  distance  depending  on  the  strength  of  the  soil  and 
the  available  moisture — the  most  common  distance  being  ten  to  fourteen  inches. 

Irrigation  is  given  to  supply  ample  moisture  during  the  growing  periods 
with  a  lessening  amount  at  time  of  maturing.  Some  lands  need  but  a  single 
irrigation  previous  to  seeding  to  carry  the  crop  through,  while  others  require 
several  applications  during  the  growing  period  of  the  plants. 

When  the  leaves  turn  yellow  and  a  test  indicates  a  satisfactory  degree  of 
maturity  the  beets  are  ready  for  digging.  Specially  designed  plows  loosen  either 
one,  two  or  more  rows  at  a  time,  when  the  beets  are  pulled,  several  rows  thrown 
together,  topped,  at  the  junction  of  the  green  top  with  the  creamy  yellow  root 
and  hauled  or  shipped  at  once  to  the  factory. 

The  work  of  thinning,  hoeing  weeds,  cleaning  ditches,  pulling,  topping  and 
loading  the  beets  is  ordinarily  done  by  Japanese,  Hindus,  or  Mexicans  working 
on  a  day  or  contract  basis — the  sliding  scale  contract  based  on  tonnage  pro- 
duced with  bonus  provision  as  a  rule  giving  the  best  mutual  satisfaction.  The 
contract  price  ranges  from  85  cents  to  over  $2  per  ton,  according  to  the  yield 
per  acre,  with  a  general  average  price  of  perhaps  $1.25. 

The  beets  are  delivered  to  the  factory  under  a  contract  drawn  up  previous 
to  planting,  under  the  terms  of  which,  among  other  things,  the  factory  agrees 
to  accept  all  beets  coming  up  to  a  certain  standard — usually  set  at  a  minimum 
of  12  per  cent  sugar  content  and  80  per  cent  purity,  with  a  maximum  weight 
limit  of  four  pounds.  These  beets  are  paid  for  on  either  a  tonnage  basis  or 
on  the  sugar  content  at  prices  designated  at  the  time  the  contract  is  drawn. 

Each  factory  employs  the  service  of  a  thoroughly  trained  agriculturist  who 
stands  ready  to  advise  and  assist  all  growers  in  every  way  possible. 


WALNUT  CULTUEE 
By  Ealph  E.  Smith,  Professor  of  Plant  Pathology 

Soil  and  Climate. — Fairly  heavy  soil  is  needed  and  walnut  culture  is  not 
advisable  on  that  which  is  sandy,  dry,  shallow,  or  "alkaline."  The  best  soils 
are  dark  colored,  muddy  when  wet  (but  not  of  stiff  clay),  six  feet  or  more  in 
depth  to  water,  hardpan,  sand,  or  other  unfavorable  strata,  and  well  drained. 

Climatic  disadvantages  are  late  spring  frosts  and  extreme  summer  heat. 
Different  varieties  are  adapted  to  various  conditions  in  these  respects,  if  not 
too  extreme.  Walnuts  require  a  considerable  amount  of  water.  They  can 
be  grown  without  irrigation  in  some  places,  but  it  is  usually  better  to  have 
water. 

Districts. — The  principal  walnut  groves  of  the  state  are  located  between 
Santa  Barbara  and  Santa  Ana.  The  industry  is  now  developing  in  some  of  the 
northern  counties.  Whittier  and  Santa  Barbara  are  important  centers  of  pro- 
duction, while  San  Jose,  Walnut  Creek,  Stockton,  and  Santa  Rosa  represent  the 
northern   districts. 


63 

Culture. — The  first  essential  is  a  proper  choice  of  variety  for  a  given  locality; 
the  beginner  should  seek  reliable  advice  from  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  or  elsewhere.  The  northern  California  black  walnut  is  the  usual  root. 
The  older  groves  of  the  state  are  of  seedling  trees,  but  these  are  no  longer 
planted.  Franquette,  Mayette,  Concord,  Eureka,  Placentia  Perfection,  and 
El  Monte  are  the  best  varieties.  Promising  new  varieties  are  appearing.  Trees 
cost  from  75  cents  to  $2  each.  Some  plant  black  walnuts  in  orchard  form  to 
top  graft  later;  this  method  is  only  of  advantage  where  no  irrigation  can  be 
practiced.  Planting  averages  50  x  50  feet,  requiring  seventeen  trees  per  acre. 
Young  groves  may  be  interplanted  with  alfalfa,  tree  or  small  fruits,  vegetables, 
or  other  crops,  provided  plenty  of  water  is  available.  Producing  groves  are 
usually  plowed  in  spring,  irrigated  in  June,  August  and  in  winter  if  the  rainfall 
is  short,  and  cultivated  after  irrigation  and  occasionally  between.  Little 
pruning  or  fertilization  is  practiced,  although  desirable  in  older  groves.  Spray- 
ing is  commencing  to  be  practiced  in  some  sections  against  two  pests,  the 
blight  and  aphis.  Walnuts  should  pay  expenses  by  the  fifth  year  after 
planting  and  reach  good  bearing  at  ten.  The  production  should  continue  to 
increase  for  many  years;  the  tree  is  long-lived  and  fairly  hardy. 

Harvesting. — The  nuts  ripen  in  September  and  October  and  are  picked  from 
the  ground  after  light  shaking  of  the  trees.  They  are  then  usually  washed, 
dried  in  the  sun,  bleached  and  graded.  In  the  south,  most  of  the  growers 
belong  to  co-operative  associations  with  central  packing  houses,  where  the  nuts 
are  bleached,  graded  and  shipped. 

Marketing. — The  demand  for  walnuts  is  greater  than  the  supply.  Prices  are 
established  by  the  associations  and  the  crop  sold  through  brokers.  Independent 
growers  easily  sell  to  private  customers. 

Cost  of  Production. — Harvesting,  preparing  and  marketing  the  nuts  averages 
three  cents  per  pound.  Production  expenses  vary  from  $10  to  $50  per  acre, 
averaging  nearer  the  lower  figure.  Taxes  and  interest  on  the  investment  must 
be  added. 

Returns. — Groves  average  1000  pounds  of  nuts  per  acre  per  year,  with  an 
average  selling  price  of  12%  cents  per  pound  for  all  grades  and  sizes.  The 
better  varieties  frequently  produce  2000  pounds  per  acre  and  average  16  cents 
per  pound.  Greater  returns  are  exceptional.  This  gives  a  net  income  of  say 
$80  to  $200  per  acre.     Groves  average  from  ten  to  forty  acres. 

Cost  of  Groves  and  Land. — Walnut  groves  in  Southern  California  can  be 
bought  for  $700  to  $2000  per  acre.  One  thousand  dollars  is  an  average  price. 
In  this  section  good  bare  land  with  water  costs  at  least  $400  per  acre  and 
usually  more.  In  the  central  or  northern  portion  of  the  state  $150  to  $300  per 
acre  are  average  prices  for  desirable  land  with  irrigation  possibilities. 

Labor. — The  crop  is  well  adapted  to  a  working  family.  Father  or  sons  can 
do  the  heavy  work,  while  women  and  children  can  pick  up  the  nuts.  Labor 
costs  about  $2.25  per  day  for  able-bodied  men,  or  $5  per  day  for  a  man  and  team. 

Troubles. — These  are  due  principally  to  sandy  or  shallow  soil,  lack  of  water, 
improper  varieties,  bad  treatment,  injurious  climatic  conditions,  and  the  disease 
called  blight.  These  conditions  can  be  largely  avoided  by  proper  choice  of 
locality  and  varieties,  and  good  culture. 


v&s 


CLIMATIC  DIVISIONS  OF  CALIFORNIA 
(From  the  standpoint  of  crop  production) 

1.  Northwest  Coast  Region. 

2.  Central  Coast  Region. 

3.  Southern  Coast  Region. 

4.  Interior  Valley  Region. 

5.  Mountain  and  Plateau  Region. 


